The literature suggests that product and product-service system (PSS) design problems are characteristically different. However, there is limited empirical evidence to suggest that the design cognition specific to the respective design activities is different. This article reports the findings of a comparative study of protocols of conceptual product and PSS designing carried out in a laboratory environment by 28 pairs of experienced product designers from the manufacturing industry. First, differences between product and PSS design problems were theoretically characterized in terms of their respective sources of complexity. Based on these differences, hypotheses concerning differences in the cognitive processes of conceptual product and PSS designing were developed and empirically tested. Results indicate that PSS designing by experienced product designers is more problem-focused while product designing is more solution-focused. PSS designing was found to focus more on the design issue function and the design process formulation. Further, PSS designing was more likely to apply a depth-first search strategy, while product designing was more apt to apply a breadth-first search strategy. Results point towards the need to support the analysis of derived behavior of structure and the application of a breadth-first strategy during PSS designing by product designers.

Despite the widely recognized potential of product-as-a-service (PaaS) business models to contribute to the circular economy, many industrial case studies have reported that several systemic factors tend to hinder product manufacturers from effectively designing such solutions. More specifically, factors such as linear value chains, organizational structures, and market and financial conditions tend to restrict the freedom of product manufacturers to design circular PaaS solutions effectively. In this article, we take a novel approach to advance the body of knowledge concerning the interactions between policies and circular PaaS designing. We first explore the potential of the existing policy landscape to support designing for a circular economy in the manufacturing industry. The results suggest that the existing policy landscape is primarily focused on regulating product design outcomes and is thus deemed unsuitable for supporting circular PaaS designing. Subsequently, we investigate the literature to uncover how internal and external systemic factors may hinder the implementation of the key facets of circular PaaS designing in the manufacturing industry. Based on these findings, we propose a prospective policy framework that includes a mix of complementary policy interventions that systemically target the identified internal and external factors to support the implementation of the key facets of circular PaaS designing.

This report documents a proof-of-concept (POC) study carried out to assess the feasibility of an experimental procedure to be used in a full-fledged project that aims to improve the understanding of the neurocognitive characteristics of the processes of different domain-specific design for environmental sustainability (DfS) activities performed by designers with different levels of domain knowledge. The neural-imaging technique of electroencephalography (EEG) is used to carry out the data-collection. In brief, the full-fledged project aims to investigate and compare the neural characteristics specific to the processes of designing. The comparison can be between different tasks, for instance, 1) a product DfS task and 2) a product-service system (PSS) DfS task, and between different cohorts of designers, for instance, 1) designers with PSS design knowledge and 2) designers without PSS design knowledge.

This article aims to contribute to the knowledge on product/service system (PSS) design practice as follows. First, a new rationale for why PSS design in practice often does not exploit its full potential is given based on a theory on inseparability of services. Second, a representation of the dependencies between product design parameters (DPs) and service DPs in a form of potential-dependency knowledge base is proposed as a remedy.Third, reusability of the knowledge captured from product-service integration across sectorial borders is shown with PSS design at a complex product manufacturer.

The overall objective of this research is to support practitioners within the manufacturing industry to effectively design product-service system (PSS)-based solutions with relatively lower environmental impacts than typical product-centric solutions. Design research methodology (DRM) is applied to systematically address this objective with both descriptive and prescriptive approaches. The research draws empirical insights from a pool of 68 experienced product developers from the manufacturing industry. Initially, a generic model to predict the variant nature of domain-specific design cognition is conceptualized. 

Using this conceptual framework, differences in design cognition between conceptual product and PSS designing are theoretically predicted and empirically tested using protocol analysis. Based on a statistical comparison of the findings, the cognitive nature of PSS designing is descriptively characterized in relation to that of typical product designing. The results suggest that PSS designing is more problem-focused and applies a similar level of focus on the highest level of systems abstraction as product designing. A deeper investigation into PSS designing revealed that compared to product aspects, relatively less focus was afforded to the service aspects, interactions between product and service aspects, and the aspects regarding the overall PSS. Based on these findings, it was inferred that the cohort might need PSS domain-specific support to effectively design such systems. Three design support prescriptions were developed based on the improved understanding of the cognitive characteristics of PSS designing. One of these prescriptions, termed the PSS design schema, was developed using the method of literature analysis and synthesis. The other two prescriptions, termed lifecycle function deployment (LFD) and systemic lifecycle engineering, were developed using the method of action design research (ADR). Subsequently, the effects of the PSS design schema were descriptively tested using protocol analysis, and those of the other two prescriptions were assessed with a lifecycle assessment (LCA) of the design outcomes. 

The effects of the PSS design schema point towards significant changes in the cognitive characteristics of PSS designing. The effects of the other two prescriptions point towards significant reductions in the potential environmental impacts of the concepts when compared with the respective existing productcentric offerings that were redesigned using the support. Based on these empirical findings, the conceptual framework is refined and extended to conceptualize and hypothesize the interplays of pre-existing domain-specific knowledge of the designers and the effects of design support on design cognition. 

Det övergripande målet med denna forskning är att stödja utvecklare inom tillverkningsindustrin att effektivt skapa lösningar baserat på produkttjänstesystem (eng. product-service system (PSS)) som har en lägre miljöpåverkan än typiska produktcentrerade lösningar. För att uppfylla detta syfte tillämpas en systematisk forskningsmetodik kallad DRM. Detta tillvägagångssätt möjliggör både beskrivande och föreskrivande forskning. I forskningen nyttjas en resurs bestående av 68 erfarna produktutvecklare från tillverkningsindustrin för att uppnå empiriska resultat. I ett första stadie utvecklas en generisk modell för att förutsäga karaktären av domänspecifik designkognition.

Genom att tillämpa detta konceptuella ramverk förutsägs och undersöks skillnader i designkognition vid utveckling av både produkter och PSS. I ramverket används protokollanalys för att sätta empiri mot teori. Sedan, baserat på statistisk bearbetning och jämförelse av forskningsdata, beskrivs kognitiva kännetecken för PSS-utformning i förhållande till rutinmässig produktutveckling. Det indikeras att utformning av PSS-lösningar är mer problemfokuserat än för produkter. Däremot kräver båda lika stort fokus vid hög abstraktionsnivå. Vid djupdykning inom PSS-utformning visas att begränsat och inkonsekvent fokus tilldelas aspekter inom tjänster, interaktioner mellan produkter och tjänster samt övergripande för PSS. Baserat på dessa resultat drogs slutsatsen att utvecklare kan behöva domänspecifikt stöd för att effektivt kunna utforma PSS.

Med grund i den förbättrade förståelsen av kognitiva kännetecken för PSS-utformning utvecklades tre metoder som stödjer under designstadiet. En av dessa, benämnd designschemat för PSS, utvecklades genom litteraturanalys och -syntes. De andra två metoderna – driftsättning av livscykelfunktionalitet och systematisk livscykelteknik – utvecklades genom en aktionsforskningsmetod. Effekterna av designschemat för PSS undersöktes och beskrevs genom protokollanalys medan de andra två evaluerades genom att tillämpa livscykelanalys (LCA) på det som utformats.

De identifierade effekterna av designschemat för PSS pekar på betydande förändringar i de kognitiva kännetecknen för PSS-utformning. Genom att använda det utvecklade stödet pekar de andra två metoderna mot betydande minskning av konceptens potentiella miljöpåverkan jämfört med respektive omarbetat produkterbjudande. Baserat på de empiriska designkognitionsresultaten förfinades och utökades det konceptuella ramverket till att konceptualisera och hypotetisera samspelet mellan redan existerande domänspecifik kunskap hos utvecklare och effekten av stöd vid utformning PSS-lösningar.

ಸಾರಾಂಶ

ವಿಶಿಷ್ಟ ಉತ್ಪನ್ನ-ಕೇಂದ್ರಿತ ಪರಿಹಾರಗಳಿಗಿಂತ ತುಲನಾತ್ಮಕವಾಗಿ ಕಡಿಮೆ ಪರಿಸರ ಪರಿಣಾಮಗಳೊಂದಿಗೆ ಉತ್ಪನ್ನ-ಸೇವಾ ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆ (PSS) ಆಧಾರಿತ ಪರಿಹಾರಗಳನ್ನು ಪರಿಣಾಮಕಾರಿಯಾಗಿ ವಿನ್ಯಾಸಗೊಳಿಸಲು ಉತ್ಪಾದನಾ ಉದ್ಯಮದೊಳಗಿನ ಅಭ್ಯಾಸಕಾರರನ್ನು ಬೆಂಬಲಿಸುವುದು ಈ ಸಂಶೋಧನೆಯ ಒಟ್ಟಾರೆ ಉದ್ದೇಶವಾಗಿದೆ. ಡಿಸೈನ್ ರಿಸರ್ಚ್ ಮೆಥಡಾಲಜಿ (DRM) ಅನ್ನು ಕ್ರಮಬದ್ಧವಾಗಿ ಈ ಗುರಿಯನ್ನು ವಿವರಣಾತ್ಮಕ ಮತ್ತು ಪ್ರಿಸ್ಕ್ರಿಪ್ಟಿವ್ ಆಪ್-ಪ್ರೋಚ್‌ಗಳೊಂದಿಗೆ ಪರಿಹರಿಸಲು ಅನ್ವಯಿಸಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ. ಸಂಶೋಧನೆಯು ಉತ್ಪಾದನಾ ಉದ್ಯಮದಿಂದ 68 ಅನುಭವಿ ಉತ್ಪನ್ನ ಡೆವಲಪರ್‌ಗಳ ಪೂಲ್‌ನಿಂದ ಪ್ರಾಯೋಗಿಕ ಒಳನೋಟಗಳನ್ನು ಸೆಳೆಯುತ್ತದೆ. ಆರಂಭದಲ್ಲಿ, ಡೊಮೇನ್-ನಿರ್ದಿಷ್ಟ ವಿನ್ಯಾಸದ ಅರಿವಿನ ಭಿನ್ನ ಸ್ವರೂಪವನ್ನು ಊಹಿಸಲು ಜೆನರ್-ಐಸಿ ಮಾದರಿಯನ್ನು ಪರಿಕಲ್ಪನೆ ಮಾಡಲಾಗಿದೆ.

ಈ ಪರಿಕಲ್ಪನಾ ಚೌಕಟ್ಟನ್ನು ಬಳಸಿಕೊಂಡು, ಪರಿಕಲ್ಪನಾ ಉತ್ಪನ್ನ ಮತ್ತು ಪಿಎಸ್ಎಸ್ ವಿನ್ಯಾಸದ ನಡುವಿನ ವಿನ್ಯಾಸದ ಅರಿವಿನ ವ್ಯತ್ಯಾಸಗಳನ್ನು ಸೈದ್ಧಾಂತಿಕವಾಗಿ ಊಹಿಸಲಾಗಿದೆ ಮತ್ತು ಪ್ರೋಟೋಕಾಲ್ ವಿಶ್ಲೇಷಣೆಯನ್ನು ಬಳಸಿಕೊಂಡು ಪ್ರಾಯೋಗಿಕವಾಗಿ ಪರೀಕ್ಷಿಸಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ. ಸಂಶೋಧನೆಗಳ ಅಂಕಿಅಂಶಗಳ ಹೋಲಿಕೆಯ ಆಧಾರದ ಮೇಲೆ, ಪಿಎಸ್ಎಸ್ ವಿನ್ಯಾಸದ ಅರಿವಿನ ಸ್ವರೂಪವು ವಿಶಿಷ್ಟ ಉತ್ಪನ್ನ ವಿನ್ಯಾಸಕ್ಕೆ ಸಂಬಂಧಿಸಿದಂತೆ ವಿವರಣಾತ್ಮಕವಾಗಿ ನಿರೂಪಿಸಲ್ಪಟ್ಟಿದೆ. ಫಲಿತಾಂಶಗಳು ಪಿಎಸ್ಎಸ್ ವಿನ್ಯಾಸವು ಹೆಚ್ಚು ಸಮಸ್ಯೆ-ಕೇಂದ್ರಿತವಾಗಿದೆ ಮತ್ತು ಉತ್ಪನ್ನ ವಿನ್ಯಾಸದಂತೆ ಉನ್ನತ ಮಟ್ಟದ ಸಿಸ್ಟಮ್ ಅಮೂರ್ತತೆಯ ಮೇಲೆ ಒಂದೇ ರೀತಿಯ ಗಮನವನ್ನು ಅನ್ವಯಿಸುತ್ತದೆ ಎಂದು ಸೂಚಿಸುತ್ತದೆ. PSS ವಿನ್ಯಾಸದ ಆಳವಾದ ತನಿಖೆಯು ಉತ್ಪನ್ನದ ಅಂಶಗಳಿಗೆ ಹೋಲಿಸಿದರೆ, ಸೇವಾ ಅಂಶಗಳು, ಉತ್ಪನ್ನ ಮತ್ತು ಸೇವಾ ಅಂಶಗಳ ನಡುವಿನ ಪರಸ್ಪರ ಕ್ರಿಯೆಗಳು ಮತ್ತು ಒಟ್ಟಾರೆ PSS ಗೆ ಸಂಬಂಧಿಸಿದ ಅಂಶಗಳಿಗೆ ತುಲನಾತ್ಮಕವಾಗಿ ಕಡಿಮೆ ಗಮನವನ್ನು ನೀಡಲಾಗಿದೆ ಎಂದು ಬಹಿರಂಗಪಡಿಸಿತು. ಈ ಸಂಶೋಧನೆಗಳ ಆಧಾರದ ಮೇಲೆ, ಅಂತಹ ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆಗಳನ್ನು ಪರಿಣಾಮಕಾರಿಯಾಗಿ ವಿನ್ಯಾಸಗೊಳಿಸಲು ಸಮೂಹಕ್ಕೆ PSS ಡೊಮೇನ್-ನಿರ್ದಿಷ್ಟ ಬೆಂಬಲ ಬೇಕಾಗಬಹುದು ಎಂದು ಊಹಿಸಲಾಗಿದೆ. PSS ವಿನ್ಯಾಸದ ಅರಿವಿನ ಗುಣಲಕ್ಷಣಗಳ ಸುಧಾರಿತ ತಿಳುವಳಿಕೆಯ ಆಧಾರದ ಮೇಲೆ ಮೂರು ವಿನ್ಯಾಸ ಬೆಂಬಲದ ಪ್ರಿಸ್ಕ್ರಿಪ್ಷನ್ಗಳನ್ನು ಅಭಿವೃದ್ಧಿಪಡಿಸಲಾಗಿದೆ. PSS ವಿನ್ಯಾಸ ಸ್ಕೀಮಾ ಎಂದು ಕರೆಯಲ್ಪಡುವ ಈ ಪ್ರಿಸ್ಕ್ರಿಪ್ಷನ್‌ಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಒಂದನ್ನು ಸಾಹಿತ್ಯ ವಿಶ್ಲೇಷಣೆ ಮತ್ತು ಸಂಶ್ಲೇಷಣೆಯ ವಿಧಾನವನ್ನು ಬಳಸಿಕೊಂಡು ಅಭಿವೃದ್ಧಿಪಡಿಸಲಾಗಿದೆ. ಲೈಫ್‌ಸೈಕಲ್ ಫಂಕ್ಷನ್ ಡಿಪ್ಲಾಯ್‌ಮೆಂಟ್ (ಎಲ್‌ಎಫ್‌ಡಿ) ಮತ್ತು ಸಿಸ್ಟಮಿಕ್ ಲೈಫ್‌ಸೈಕಲ್ ಇಂಜಿನಿಯರಿಂಗ್ ಎಂದು ಕರೆಯಲ್ಪಡುವ ಇತರ ಎರಡು ಪ್ರಿಸ್ಕ್ರಿಪ್ಷನ್‌ಗಳನ್ನು ಆಕ್ಷನ್ ಡಿಸೈನ್ ರಿಸರ್ಚ್ (ADR) ವಿಧಾನವನ್ನು ಬಳಸಿಕೊಂಡು ಅಭಿವೃದ್ಧಿಪಡಿಸಲಾಗಿದೆ. ತರುವಾಯ, ಪಿಎಸ್ಎಸ್ ವಿನ್ಯಾಸದ ಸ್ಕೀಮಾದ ಪರಿಣಾಮಗಳನ್ನು ಪ್ರೋಟೋಕಾಲ್ ವಿಶ್ಲೇಷಣೆಯನ್ನು ಬಳಸಿಕೊಂಡು ವಿವರಣಾತ್ಮಕವಾಗಿ ಪರೀಕ್ಷಿಸಲಾಯಿತು, ಮತ್ತು ಇತರ ಎರಡು ಪ್ರಿಸ್ಕ್ರಿಪ್ಷನ್‌ಗಳನ್ನು ವಿನ್ಯಾಸದ ಫಲಿತಾಂಶಗಳ ಜೀವನಚಕ್ರ ಮೌಲ್ಯಮಾಪನ (LCA) ಯೊಂದಿಗೆ ಮೌಲ್ಯಮಾಪನ ಮಾಡಲಾಯಿತು.

ಪಿಎಸ್ಎಸ್ ವಿನ್ಯಾಸದ ಸ್ಕೀಮಾದ ಪರಿಣಾಮಗಳು ಪಿಎಸ್ಎಸ್ ವಿನ್ಯಾಸದ ಅರಿವಿನ ಗುಣಲಕ್ಷಣಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಗಮನಾರ್ಹ ಬದಲಾವಣೆಗಳತ್ತ ಗಮನ ಹರಿಸುತ್ತವೆ. ಬೆಂಬಲವನ್ನು ಬಳಸಿಕೊಂಡು ಮರುವಿನ್ಯಾಸಗೊಳಿಸಲಾದ ಸಂಬಂಧಿತ ಅಸ್ತಿತ್ವದಲ್ಲಿರುವ ಉತ್ಪನ್ನ-ಕೇಂದ್ರಿತ ಕೊಡುಗೆಗಳೊಂದಿಗೆ ಹೋಲಿಸಿದರೆ ಪರಿಕಲ್ಪನೆಗಳ ಸಂಭಾವ್ಯ ಪರಿಸರ-ಮಾನಸಿಕ ಪರಿಣಾಮಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಗಮನಾರ್ಹವಾದ ಕಡಿತದ ಕಡೆಗೆ ಇತರ ಎರಡು ಪ್ರಿಸ್ಕ್ರಿಪ್ಷನ್‌ಗಳ ಪರಿಣಾಮಗಳು ಸೂಚಿಸುತ್ತವೆ. ಈ ಪ್ರಾಯೋಗಿಕ ಆವಿಷ್ಕಾರಗಳ ಆಧಾರದ ಮೇಲೆ, ವಿನ್ಯಾಸಕಾರರ ಪೂರ್ವ-ಅಸ್ತಿತ್ವದಲ್ಲಿರುವ ಡೊಮೇನ್-ನಿರ್ದಿಷ್ಟ ಜ್ಞಾನದ ಪರಸ್ಪರ ಸಂಬಂಧಗಳು ಮತ್ತು ಡಿ-ಸೈನ್ ಅರಿವಿನ ಮೇಲೆ ವಿನ್ಯಾಸ ಬೆಂಬಲದ ಪರಿಣಾಮಗಳನ್ನು ಪರಿಕಲ್ಪನೆ ಮಾಡಲು ಮತ್ತು ಊಹಿಸಲು ಪರಿಕಲ್ಪನಾ ಚೌಕಟ್ಟನ್ನು ಪರಿಷ್ಕರಿಸಲಾಗಿದೆ ಮತ್ತು ವಿಸ್ತರಿಸಲಾಗಿದೆ.

Products and services are mutually dependant throughout the lifecycle, and the interdependencies present potential for exploitation to decrease the environmental impacts. However, effective yet practical support to realize this potential in industry is insufficient. This paper presents a procedure with a knowledge base that help uncover important latent interdependencies, partly implemented as an Excel-based tool, concretizing systemic lifecycle engineering. The procedure has been validated with an elevator and the related services for wind turbines, in collaboration with a manufacturer in Europe, showing potential environmental improvements quantitatively. Also, the importance of maintenance in renewable energy systems is discussed.

Conceptual Product-Service System (PSS) designing is expected to be inherently different and more complex than designing its discrete product or service elements. This paper presents empirical insights from 10 protocol studies of experienced practitioners, conceptually designing a PSS in a laboratory setting. A coding scheme based on function-behavior-structure ontology was used to capture the distributions of the designers’ cognitive efforton design issues and processes. Two further coding schemes were used to capture the cognitive effort expended on different levels of a systems hierarchy and in the cognitive design spaces of PSS, product and service, as well as the interactions between them. The results derived from the analyses indicate that the practitioners expend the most cognitive effort on the design issue of behavior and on the process of evaluation. They focus most on the element level of the systems hierarchy and spend the most time in the product design space.

In this article, we introduce a protocol analysis-based approach to analyze the cognitive characteristics of conceptual ecodesigning of product-service systems (PSSs). We initially present a novel and generic model to represent the lifecycle stages of solutions offered by industry and we contextualize it to PSS based offerings. Based on this representation of the PSS lifecycle stages and that of its architecture, we propose a multi-level coding scheme and a protocol analysis-based approach to analyze the distribution of designers' cognitive effort on the following three dimensions: i) different lifecycle stages, ii) different aspects of PSS architecture and iii) ecodesign activities and environmental issues. We applied this approach to analyze a conceptual PSS ecodesign case, performed in a laboratory setting by a pair of experienced practitioners. The results clearly indicate the evidence of quantitative differences in the distribution of the designers' cognitive effort on the different dimensions of PSS ecodesigning and thus, confirms the applicability and utility of the proposed approach.

With rising societal demands for a transition towards a circular economy and intensifying market competition, manufacturing companies are increasingly seeking alternative ways to design and develop their industrial offerings with reduced environmental impacts and increased value. A possible solution lies in designing environmentally benign product/service systems (PSSs), which often requires the redesign of existing offerings in industrial practice. This article presents a design navigator named lifecycle-oriented function deployment (LFD), which builds on the widely utilized life cycle assessment (LCA) and quality function deployment (QFD) to support the redesign of existing industrial offerings towards PSSs with reduced environmental impacts. LFD includes a novel procedure to derive environmental requirements using LCA and to prioritize them along with customer requirements. It introduces a list of generic service design characteristics to support service design. It also contains a QFD-based procedure to identify design parameters (characteristics and components for both products and services) that have a relatively strong influence on the prioritized requirements. Further, a novel way is proposed to capture specific product and service design characteristics that are feasible to integrate and potentially have a rather strong influence on the requirements when combined. LFD is subsequently applied in a case study to conceptually redesign an existing offering in a manufacturing company. The application is then assessed using an LCA and a semi-structured interview with the users of LFD. The LCA results indicate significant reductions in environmental impacts of the redesigned concepts, and the interview revealed benefits for the practitioners who used LFD.