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Anisotropic mechanical behaviors and microstructural evolution of thin-walled additively manufactured metals
Linköping University, Department of Management and Engineering, Engineering Materials. Linköping University, Faculty of Science & Engineering.
2020 (English)Licentiate thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Additive manufacturing (AM), also known as 3D printing, is a concept and method of a manufacturing process that builds a three-dimensional object layer-by-layer. Opposite to the conventional subtractive manufacturing, it conquers various limitations on component design freedom and raises interest in various fields, including aerospace, automotive and medical applications. This thesis studies the mechanical behavior of thin-walled component manufactured by a common AM technique, laser powder bed fusion (LPBF). The studied material is Hastelloy X, which is a Ni-based superalloy, and it is in connection to a component repair application in gas turbines. The influence of microstructure on the deformation mechanisms at elevated temperatures is systematically investigated. This study aims for a fundamental and universal study that can apply to different material grades with FCC crystallographic structure.

It is common to find elongated grain and subgrain structure caused by the directional laser energy input in the LPBF process, which is related to the different printing parameters and brands of equipment. This thesis will start with the study of scan rotation effect on stainless steel 316L in an EOS M290 equipment. The statistic texture analysis by using neutron diffraction reveals a clear transition when different level of scan rotation is applied. Scan rotation of 67° is a standard printing parameter with intention to lower anisotropy, yet, the elongated grain and cell structure is still found in the as-built microstructure. Therefore, the anisotropic mechanical behavior study is carried out on the sample printed with scan rotation of 67° in this thesis.

Thin-walled effects in LPBF are investigated by studying a group of plate-like HX specimens, with different nominal thicknesses from 4mm down to 1mm, and a reference group of rod-like sample with a diameter of 18mm. A texture similar to Goss texture is found in rod-like sample, and it becomes <011>//BD fiber texture in the 4mm specimen, then it turns to be <001> fiber texture along the transverse direction (TD) in the 1mm specimen. Tensile tests with the strain rate of 103 s1 have been applied to the plate-like specimens from room temperature up to 700 ℃. A degradation of strength is shown when the sample becomes thinner, which is assumed to be due to the overestimated load bearing cross-section since the as-built surface is rough. A cross-section calibration method is proposed by reducing the surface roughness, and a selection of proper roughness parameters is demonstrated with the consideration of the calculated Taylor’s factor and the residual stress. The large thermal gradient during the LPBF process induces high dislocation density and strengthens the material, hence, the LPBF HX exhibits better yield strength than conventionally manufactured, wrought HX, but the work hardening capacity and ductility are sacrificed at the same time.

Two types of loading condition reveal the anisotropic mechanical behavior, where the vertical and horizontal tests refer to the loading direction being on the BD and TD respectively. The vertical tests exhibit lower strength but better ductility that is related to the larger lattice rotation observed from the samples with different deformation level. Meanwhile, the elongated grain structure and grain boundary embrittlement are responsible for the low horizontal ductility. A ductile to brittle transition is traced at 700 ℃, so a further study with two different slow strain rates, 105 s1 and 106 s1, are carried out at 700 ℃. Creep damage is shown in the slow strain rates testing. Deformation twinning is found only in the vertical tests where it forms mostly in the twin favorable <111> oriented grain along the LD. The large lattice rotation and the deformation twinning make the vertical ductility remain high level under the slow strain rates. The slow strain rate tensile testing lightens the understanding of creep behavior in LPBF Ni-based superalloys.

In summary, this thesis uncovers the tensile behavior of LPBF HX with different variations, including geometry-dependence, temperature-dependence, crystallographic texture-dependence and strain rate-dependence. The generated knowledge will be beneficial to the future study of different mechanical behavior such as fatigue and creep, and it will also enable a more robust design for LPBF applications.

Abstract [sv]

Additiv tillverkning, eller 3D-utskrifter, är tillverkningsmetoder där man skapar ett tredimensionellt objekt genom att tillföra material lager for lager. Till skillnad från konventionella avverkande tillverkningsmetoder elimineras många geometriska begränsningar vilket ger större designfrihet och metoderna har därför väckt stort intresse inom en rad olika områden, inklusive flyg-, fordons- och medicinska tillämpningar. I denna avhandling studeras mekaniska egenskaper hos tunnväggiga komponenter tillverkade med en vanligt förekommande laserbaserad pulverbädds-teknik, laser powder bed fusion (LPBF). Det studerade materialet är Hastelloy X, en Ni-baserad superlegering som är vanligt förekommande for både nytillverkning och reparation av komponenter för gasturbiner. Inverkan av mikrostruktur på deformationsmekanismerna vid förhöjda temperaturer undersöks systematiskt. Detta arbete syftar till att ge grundläggande och generisk kunskap som kan tillämpas på olika materialtyper med en kubiskt tätpackad (FCC) kristallstruktur.

Det är vanligt att man hittar en utdragen kornstruktur orsakad av den riktade tillförseln av laserenergi i LPBF-processen, vilket kan relateras till olika processparametrar och kan variera mellan utrustningar frän olika leverantörer. Denna avhandling inleds med studien av effekten av scanningsstrategi vid tillverkning av rostfritt stål 316L i en EOS M290-utrustning. En statistisk texturanalys med hjälp av neutrondiffraktion påvisar en tydlig övergång mellan olika mikrostrukturer när olika scanningsstrategier tillämpas. En scanningsrotation på 67 mellan varje lager är en typisk standardinställning med avsikt att sanka anisotropin i materialet, dock finns den utdragna kornstrukturen oftast kvar. I denna avhandling studeras därför de anisotropa egenskaperna hos material tillverkade med 67 scanningsrotation.

Effekten av tunnväggiga strukturer i LPBF undersöks genom att studera en uppsättning platta HX-prover, med olika nominella tjocklekar från 4 mm ner till 1 mm, samt en referensgrupp med cylindriska prov med en diameter på 18 mm. Kristallografisk textur som liknar den av Goss-typ återfinns i de cylindriska proverna vilket gradvis övergår från en fibertextur med <011> i byggriktningen for 4mm-proven till en fibertextur med <001> i tvärriktningen for 1mm-proven. Dragprovning med en töjningshastighet på 103 s1 har utförts på de platta provstavarna från rumstemperatur upp till 700 ℃. En sänkning av styrkan uppvisas när proven blir tunnare, vilket kan antas bero på att det lastbarande tvärsnittet överskattas på grund av den grova ytan. En metod för tvärsnittskalibrering föreslås genom att kompensera for ytråheten, och valet av lämplig ytfinhetsparameter motiveras med hänsyn till den beräknade Taylor-faktorn och förekomsten av restspänningar. Den stora termiska gradienten som uppstår for LPBF-processen inducerar en hög dislokationstäthet vilket höjer materialets styrka och följaktligen uppvisar LPBF HX högre sträckgräns an konventionellt tillverkad, smidda HX, men förmågan till deformationshårdnande samt duktiliteten i materialet sänks samtidigt.

Tester utförda i två olika belastningsriktningar, vertikalt respektive horisontellt mot byggriktningen, demonstrerar det anisotropiska mekaniska beteendet. De vertikala testerna uppvisar lägre hållfasthet men bättre duktilitet vilket kan relateras till en större benägenhet for kristallstukturen att rotera när deformationsgraden ökar. Samtidigt är den utdragna kronstukturen ansvarig for den lägre duktiliteten for de horisontella proverna. En övergång från ett duktilt till ett mer sprött beteende noterades vid 700 ℃, och därför initierades ytterligare en studie där tester med två lägre töjningshastigheter, 105 s1 och 106 s1, utfördes vid 700 ℃. Det kan noteras att krypskador återfinns i tester med en långsam deformationshastighet och deformationstvillingar uppstår endast i de vertikala provstavarna där det främst bildas tvillingar i korn orienterade med <111> riktningen längs belastningsriktningen. Den stora förmågan till rotation i kristallstrukturen och deformationstvillingarna bidrar till att den vertikala duktiliteten förblir hög även i testerna med en låg deformationshastighet. Testerna med en långsam draghastighet bidrar därför till en bättre förståelse av krypbeteendet i LPBF Nibaserade superlegeringar.

Sammanfattningsvis så bidrar denna avhandling till bättre förståelse av de mekaniska egenskaperna hos LPBF HX i olika utföranden och förhållanden, inklusive geometriberoende, temperaturberoende, deformationshastighetsberoende samt inverkan av kristallografisk textur. Den genererade kunskapen kommer att vara till stor nytta vid fortsatta studier av olika mekaniska egenskaper som utmattning och kryp, samt bidrar till att möjliggöra en mer robust design for LPBF-tillämpningar.  

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Linköping: Linköping University Electronic Press, 2020. , p. 51
Series
Linköping Studies in Science and Technology. Licentiate Thesis, ISSN 0280-7971 ; 1884
Keywords [en]
hot tensile testing, slow strain rate tensile testing, creep, anisotropy, crystallographic texture evolution, deformation twinning
Keywords [sv]
Varmdragprov, Dragprov med låg töjningshastighet, kryp, anisotropi, kristallografisk textur, deformationstvillingar
National Category
Other Materials Engineering
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-169054DOI: 10.3384/lic.diva-169054ISBN: 9789179298111 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:liu-169054DiVA, id: diva2:1464591
Presentation
2020-10-09, ACAS, A-Building, Campus Valla, Linköping, 10:15 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Funder
Vinnova, 2016-05175Linköpings universitet, SFO-MATLiU2009-00971Available from: 2020-09-07 Created: 2020-09-07 Last updated: 2020-09-07Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Effect of scan rotation on the microstructure development and mechanical properties of 316L parts produced by laser powder bed fusion
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Effect of scan rotation on the microstructure development and mechanical properties of 316L parts produced by laser powder bed fusion
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2020 (English)In: Materials Characterization, ISSN 1044-5803, E-ISSN 1873-4189, Vol. 163, article id 110309Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Additive manufacturing possesses appealing features for producing high-performance components, for a wide range of materials. One of these features is the ability to locally tailor the microstructure and in turn, the mechanical properties. This study investigates how the microstructure of stainless steel 316L parts produced by laser powder bed fusion are affected by alternating the laser scan orientation. The microstructure consists of large elongated grains with a fine cell substructure. This study established the correlation between the orientation of this substructure and the crystallographic orientation. The results show that by producing parts without any rotation a quite unique crystallographic orientation can be achieved. The grain structure primarily consisted of large &lt; 101 &gt; oriented grains, that were separated by thin bands of small &lt; 100 &gt; oriented grains with respect to the building direction. As rotation was added these bands were eliminated. Samples that were produced without any rotation generated the highest tensile strength (527 +/- 5.4 MPa), yield strength (449 +/- 2.4 MPa) and ductility (58 +/- 1.3%). The lowest mechanical properties were obtained for samples that were produced using a scan rotation of 67 degrees with the tensile strength of 485 +/- 4.8 MPa, yield strength of 427 +/- 5.4 MPa and ductility of 50 +/- 1.3%. This indicates that cell orientation and crystallographic orientation plays an essential role in the tensile properties of 316L parts produced by laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF).

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
ELSEVIER SCIENCE INC, 2020
Keywords
Additive manufacturing; Stainless steel; Microstructure; Texture; Scan strategy; Mechanical properties
National Category
Metallurgy and Metallic Materials
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-168173 (URN)10.1016/j.matchar.2020.110309 (DOI)000551341700037 ()
Note

Funding Agencies|Swedish Governmental Agency of Innovation Systems (Vinnova)Vinnova

Available from: 2020-08-23 Created: 2020-08-23 Last updated: 2022-05-06
2. Anisotropic Mechanical Properties of Thin-walled Hastelloy X Manufactured by Laser Powder Bed Fusion
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Anisotropic Mechanical Properties of Thin-walled Hastelloy X Manufactured by Laser Powder Bed Fusion
2019 (English)Conference paper, Oral presentation only (Refereed)
National Category
Materials Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-162608 (URN)
Conference
EURO PM2019 - Additive Manufacturing, Maastricht, 2019 October 13-16
Available from: 2019-12-11 Created: 2019-12-11 Last updated: 2022-05-06
3. Anisotropic Deformation and Fracture Mechanisms of an Additively Manufactured Ni-Based Superalloy
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Anisotropic Deformation and Fracture Mechanisms of an Additively Manufactured Ni-Based Superalloy
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2020 (English)In: Superalloys 2020: Proceedings of the 14th International Symposium on Superalloys / [ed] Tin, Sammy; Hardy, Mark; Clews, Justin; Cormier, Jonathan; Feng, Qiang; Marcin, John; O'Brien, Chris; Suzuki, Akane, Springer International Publishing , 2020, p. 1003-1013Conference paper, Published paper (Refereed)
Abstract [en]

This study investigates the anisotropic mechanical and microstructural behavior of the laser powder bed fusionLaser powder bed fusion (LPBF) manufactured Ni-based superalloy Hastelloy X (HX) by using slow strain rate (10−5 and 10−6s−1) tensile testing (SSRT) at 700 °C. LPBF HX typically exhibits an elongated grain structure along the building direction (BD) and the texture analysis from the combination of neutron diffractionNeutron diffraction and EBSD discloses a major texture component <011> and a minor texture component <001> along BD, and a texture component <001> in the other two sample directions perpendicular to BD. Two types of tests have been performed, the horizontal tests where the loading direction (LD) is applied perpendicular to BD, and the vertical tests where LD is applied parallel to BD. The vertical tests exhibit lower strength but better ductility, which is explained by the texture effect and the elongated grain structure. A comparison of the mechanical behavior to the wrought HX shows that LPBF HX has better yield strength due to the high dislocation density as proved by TEM images. Creep voids are observed at grain boundaries in SSRT for both directions and are responsible for the poor ductility of the horizontal tests. The vertical ductility in SSRT maintains the same level as the reference tensile test at the strain rate of 10−3s−1, due to the extra deformation capacity contributed by the discovered deformation twinningDeformation twinning and lattice rotation. The deformation twinningDeformation twinning, which is only observed in the vertical tests and has not been found in the conventionally manufactured HX, is beneficial to maintain the ductility but does not strengthen the material.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Springer International Publishing, 2020
Series
The Minerals, Metals & Materials Series, ISSN 2367-1181, E-ISSN 2367-1696
Keywords
Laser powder bed fusion, Slow strain rate tensile testing, Deformation twinning, Texture evolution, Neutron diffraction
National Category
Geotechnical Engineering and Engineering Geology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-169053 (URN)10.1007/978-3-030-51834-9_98 (DOI)001330673500098 ()2-s2.0-85091315112 (Scopus ID)9783030518332 (ISBN)9783030518363 (ISBN)9783030518349 (ISBN)
Conference
the 14th International Symposium on Superalloys, Seven Springs, Pennsylvania, USA, September 12–16, 2021
Available from: 2020-09-07 Created: 2020-09-07 Last updated: 2025-02-07Bibliographically approved

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