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Clinical Impact of Bloodstream Infections – Characterization, Risk factors and Outcome
Linköping University, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Division of Surgery, Orthopedics and Oncology. Linköping University, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences. Region Östergötland, Center for Surgery, Orthopaedics and Cancer Treatment, Department of Urology in Östergötland.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-3706-2294
2021 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Bloodstream infection (blood poisoning) and antibiotic resistance are increasing worldwide, and already cause the loss of millions of human lives each year. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), bloodstream infections (BSIs) represent 20% of global mortality on a par with cardiac infarct, stroke, and major trauma. BSI may occur when bacteria from a focus of infection gain access to the circulation (bacteraemia). BSIs are usually divided into two subclasses: community- and hospital-onset infections, since disease this involves different patient groups, types of bacteria, and reasons for infection. Compared to other countries, Sweden has been fortunate in having a relatively low death rate from BSI and low antibiotic resistance. However, as our lifestyle changes, the age of the population increases with more disease as a result, and as the healthcare system responds, death from infection and antibiotic resistance are on the increase. It is important that we recognise ”warning symptoms” if we are to manage BSIs correctly and initiate effective treatment. It is difficult to design individualised empirical treatment, so it is very important to be aware of risk factors for BSI and local resistance patterns, and to have an effective management programme. 

Bacterial resistance to antibiotics is an increasing problem, especially in bowel organisms that can cause infections that are very difficult to treat. In short, antibiotic resistance arises as a result of evolutionary processes where bacteria protect themselves by developing resistance genes. These genes can be exchanged between similar organisms or transmitted to others that in turn cause resistant infection. The use of antibiotics leads to an evolutionary/selection process leading to resistance in bacteria, both normal and pathogenic, enabling resistant organisms to survive, thrive, and go on to cause infection. Antibiotic resistance is a threat to global health.  

This thesis aims to increase our awareness of a large group of patients who suffer bloodstream infection. BSIs are increasing globally, and the death toll is high. Antibiotic resistance is an increasing threat to the health of the population, and we are inundated by alarming reports of resistance getting out of control. What is the situation in Sweden, and can we identify risk factors for BSI and mortality? 

In Study I, our aim was to study the incidence and mortality of BSI in Östergötland. To be able to do this, a large patient population stretching over several years was required. The study design was thus population-based in the form of an observational cohort study where all blood culture results from 2000 to 2013 were analysed, and evaluated from clinical data. A total of 109,938 results were analysed resulting in 11,480 BSIs. 

We saw that the incidence of BSI increased by 64% (mostly community-onset BSIs). We also saw that mortality increased by 45%. These results illustrate the importance of nationwide cooperation to combat the increasing problem of BSI and its mortality, and the establishment of a nationwide BSI register. 

The aim of Study II was to assess resistance development in Östergötland and its relationship to mortality. A total of 9,587 microorganisms were analysed between 2008 and 2016. We observed an increase in quinolone resistance (3.7-7.7%) and cephalosporin resistance (2.5-5.2%) amongst Enterobacteriaceae. We then looked at BSIs caused by multiresistant bacteria showing a total of 245 cases (2.6%); an increase of 300%. Despite this, we did not see an increased mortality in this group. 

There are several possible explanations for the increase in BSI mortality of which antibiotic resistance is a predominant factor globally. We were unable to show this in our study, even so mortality is increasing and is currently at a high level. In Study III we therefore analysed risk factors associated with death during a community-acquired BSI, focusing on preliminary prehospital and hospital management. In a retrospective case-control study on 195 deaths matched 1:1 regarding age, gender, and microorganism, with 195 survivors (controls). Results showed that many patients had contacted the primary healthcare system because of infection before they became severely ill, and that the strongest affectable risk factor for death was delay (>24h) between primary healthcare visit and admission to hospital. This shows the need for increased awareness in society and amongst the medical profession of those patients at risk and symptoms that should raise the alarm, leading to more rapid treatment. 

In Studies I and II we found an increase in both BSIs and mortality, we also saw an increase in antibiotic resistance and multiresistant bacteria, mainly ESBL-producing E. coli. On the other hand, we did not see any coupling between multiresistance and mortality in this Swedish population. E. coli is a gram-negative bacteria that causes most BSIs. Since E. coli is predominantly a urine tract pathogen, Study IV aimed to study BSIs caused by ESBL-producing E. coli originating from the urinary tract. We studied the prevalence of E. coli clones, resistance genes and risk factors, as well as any signs of increased mortality from ESBL-producing E. coli compared to sensitive E. coli. Our main finding was a surprisingly low mortality from ESBL-producing E. coli (3%). Most patients in the ESBL-producing E. coli group received inadequate antibiotic treatment for at least 48h, but we did not see any sign of increased mortality or risk for serious sepsis with circulatory failure in this group. This finding is interesting and opens up for new studies on virulence factors and immunological factors that govern the immune response to BSI. 

The implementation of cost-effective monitoring systems including clinical microbiological epidemiology and early identification of BSI, together with information campaigns aimed at the public as well as healthcare personnel regarding patients at risk and symptoms giving cause for alarm, should lead to a radical reduction in morbidity and mortality from BSI. This requires new diagnostic tools to individualise both antibiotic treatment and targeted management based on microorganism virulence factors. Modernisation of the medical journal system with algorithms aimed at early identification of risk patients and automated suggestions for empirical antibiotic treatment based on antibiotic resistance seen in previous cultures and local resistance patterns, would certainly improve management. Furthermore, new immunological tests showing the type of immunological reaction to a serious BSI will lead to individualised immunotherapy that, together with antibiotic treatment, will further improve patient care in this important group.  

Abstract [sv]

Infektioner i blodbanan och antibiotikaresistens ökar globalt och leder redan nu till att miljontals människor dör årligen och enligt World Health Organization (WHO) står blodförgiftning för ca 20% av den globala dödligheten vilket kan t.ex. jämföras med akut hjärtinfarkt, akut stroke och allvarliga trauman. Blodförgiftning kan uppstå när bakterier från en infektionshärd når blodbanan och kallas då för bakteriemi. Blodinfektioner undergrupperas ofta till samhällsförvärvade eller sjukhus/sjukvårdsrelaterade infektioner då det ofta rör sig om olika patientgrupper, bakterier och orsak till infektionen. Sverige har i relation till många andra länder varit förskonade med förhållandevis låg dödlighet i blodinfektioner och antibiotikaresistens. Dock i takt med en förändrad livsstil och en population med stigande ålder med fler underliggande sjukdomar och en förändrad sjukvård ökar både dödligheten och antibiotikaresistens i Sverige. Vid blodförgiftning är det viktigt att snabbt identifiera  ”alarmsymptom” för korrekt omhändertagande och effektiva behandlingsåtgärder. Att empiriskt skräddarsy effektiva åtgärder är svårt varför det är viktigt att känna till riskfaktorer för blodinfektioner, lokal antibiotikaresistensproblematik, och identifiera effektiva behandlingsåtgärder. Antibiotikaresistenta bakterier är ett ökat problem och i synnerhet hos tarmbakterier som kan bli mycket svåra att behandla. Förenklat kan man beskriva antibiotikaresistens som en evolutionär process där bakterien skyddar sig själv genom att utveckla resistensgener. Resistensgener kan överföras mellan bakterier som vidare kan orsaka infektion. Vid antibiotikaanvändning utsätts bakterier (även normal bakterieflora) för ett  ”selektions-/ evolutionärt tryck” vilket ger resistenta bakterier en överlevnadsfördel, varpå det kan öka i antal och därmed orsaka infektion. Antibiotikaresistenta bakterier är ett globalt hot mot folkhälsan.   

Denna avhandling har till syfte att synliggöra en stor patientgrupp som drabbas av blodinfektioner. Blodinfektioner ökar globalt med hög dödlighet. Antibiotikaresistens är ett ökat hot mot folkhälsa och larmrapporter om skenande antibiotikaresistens sköljer över oss. Hur ser denna utveckling ut i Sverige och kan vi identifiera riskfaktorer för blodinfektion och dödlighet.    

I Studie I vill vi fram för allt studera förekomst, dödlighet och utveckling av blodinfektioner i Östergötland för att kunna göra det behövs ett stort patientunderlag som sträcker sig över flera år. Vår studiedesign blev därför en populationsbaserad studie i form av en observation kohortstudie där samtliga blododlingar tagna mellan 2000 och 2013 analyserades och värderades utifrån kliniska data. Totalt analyserades 109,983 blododlingar som resulterade i 11,480 blodinfektioner och vi kunde då se att blodinfektionerna har ökat med 64% och det var fram för allt de samhällsförvärvade infektionerna som ökade. Vi kunde även se att dödligheten har ökat (45%) men även samsjukligheten i populationen. Resultatet understryker vikten av nationellt samordnat arbete för att motverka utvecklingen av ökat antal blodinfektioner och dödlighet samt utformning av övervakningsstrategier.   

Målsättningen med Studie II var att undersöka resistensutveckling i Östergötland och relatera till dödlighet. Totalt analyserades 9,587 mikroorganismer mellan 2008-2016 där vi bland annat noterade en ökad resistensutveckling av kinolonresistens (3.7 till 7.7%) och cefalosporinresistens (2.5 till 5.2%) hos Enterobacteriaceae. Vidare undergrupperades blodinfektionerna till de infektioner som orsakades av en multiresistent bakterie, totalt 245 stycken (2.6%). Totalt ökade dessa bakterier med 300%. Trots fler infektioner orsakade av multiresistenta bakterier kunde vi inte se att det hade någon avgörande betydelse för dödligheten.    

Det finns flera möjliga förklaringar till ökad mortalitet vid blodinfektioner, globalt är antibiotikaresistens en drivande faktor vilket vi inte kan se i våra studier, ändock ökar dödligheten och är på en hög nivå. I Studie III vill vi därför studera riskfaktorer kopplat till död vid samtidig blodinfektion, med fokus på den primära handläggningen både utanför och på sjukhus. Vilket undersöktes i en retrospektiv fall-kontroll studie med 195 fall (avlidna) matchade (1:1) avseende ålder, kön och mikroorganismer med 195 kontroller (överlevande). Resultatet visade på att många patienter har en infektionsrelaterad öppenvårdskontakt innan dom blir allvarligt sjuka och att den starkaste riskfaktorn för död var förlängd tid (>24 timmar) från öppenvårdskontakt till inläggning på sjukhus. Resultatet visar ökat behov av kunskap i allmänhet men även inom den medicinska professionen kring riskpatienter och symtom som bör föranleda ett snabbare omhändertagande.   

I Studie I och Studie II beskrivs en ökning av både blodinfektioner och död, vi vet även att antibiotikaresistens och multiresistenta bakterier, fram för allt ESBL E. coli ökar. Dock kunde vi inte se att multiresistens per se leder till ökad dödlighet i en svensk population.  E. coli är en gramnegativ bakterie som är den vanligaste förekommande bakterien vid blodinfektioner. E. coli är en primär urinvägspatogen varför vi i Studie IV vill studera ESBL E. coli med ursprung från urinvägarna. Både avseende förekomst av E. coli klon, resistensgener, riskfaktorer men även studera om det föreligger en ökad dödlighet vid ESBL E. coli infektion jämfört med känsliga E. coli. Huvudfyndet var låg dödlighet vid ESBL E. coli infektion (3%). Majoriteten av patienterna i ESBL E. coli gruppen fick inadekvat antibiotika i nästan två dygn, dock kunde vi inte påvisa någon ökad dödlighet eller risk att utveckla allvarlig blodförgiftning med cirkulationspåverkan i denna grupp. Fyndet är intressant och öppnar upp för nya intressanta studier kring virulensfaktorer och immunologiska faktorer som styr det inflammatoriska svaret.   

Implementering av kostnadseffektiva övervakningssystem med klinisk mikrobiologisk epidemiologi, tidig identifikation av blodinfektioner tillsammans med informationskampanjer till allmänheten och hälso- och sjukvårdspersonal avseende symptom och riskpatienter skulle leda till att vi kan reducera morbiditet och dödlighet vid blodinfektioner. Därutöver behövs nya diagnostiska verktyg både för att skräddarsy antibiotikabehandlingen men även för individualiserad behandling t.ex. genom att målinriktad behandling mot mikroorganismens virulensfaktorer. Vidare kan modernisering av journalsystemen med algoritmer för tidig identifikation av riskpatienter och generering av förslag till empirisk antibiotikabehandling utifrån antibiotikaresistens från tidigare odlingar men även utifrån aktuell resistenssituation lokalt förbättra handläggningen. Adderas därutöver nya immunologiska tester för att påvisa typ av immunologisk reaktion vid allvarlig blodinfektion kan individualiserad immunoterapi tillsammans med antibiotikabehandling ytterligare förbättra vården kring denna patientgrupp.   

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Linköping: Linköping University Electronic Press, 2021. , p. 146
Series
Linköping University Medical Dissertations, ISSN 0345-0082 ; 1794
Keywords [en]
Bloodstream infection (BSI), Antimicrobial resistance (AMR), Extended spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL), ESBL-producing Enterobacterales, Multidrug-resistant, Urinary tract infection, Sepsis, Epidemiology, Prehospital delay, Community-acquired BSI, Hospital-acquired BSI, Community-onset BSI
National Category
Infectious Medicine
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-181406DOI: 10.3384/diss.diva-181406ISBN: 9789179290542 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:liu-181406DiVA, id: diva2:1614167
Public defence
2021-12-17, Berzeliussalen, Building 463, Campus US, Linköping, 13:00 (Swedish)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2021-11-25 Created: 2021-11-24 Last updated: 2024-01-10Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. 14-Year Survey in a Swedish County Reveals a Pronounced Increase in Bloodstream Infections (BSI). Comorbidity: An Independent Risk Factor for Both BSI and Mortality
Open this publication in new window or tab >>14-Year Survey in a Swedish County Reveals a Pronounced Increase in Bloodstream Infections (BSI). Comorbidity: An Independent Risk Factor for Both BSI and Mortality
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2016 (English)In: PLOS ONE, E-ISSN 1932-6203, Vol. 11, no 11Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Objectives: we assessed the incidence, risk factors and outcome of BSI over a 14-year period (2000-2013) in a Swedish county.

Methods: retrospective cohort study on culture confirmed BSI among patients in the county of Östergötland, Sweden, with approximately 440,000 inhabitants. A BSI was defined as either community-onset BSI (CO-BSI) or hospital-acquired BSI (HA-BSI).

Results: of a total of 11,480 BSIs, 67% were CO-BSI and 33% HA-BSI. The incidence of BSI increased by 64% from 945 to 1,546 per 100,000 hospital admissions per year during the study period. The most prominent increase, 83% was observed within the CO-BSI cohort whilst HA-BSI increased by 32%. Prescriptions of antibiotics in outpatient care decreased with 24% from 422 to 322 prescriptions dispensed/1,000 inhabitants/year, whereas antibiotics prescribed in hospital increased by 67% (from 424 to 709 DDD per 1,000 days of care). The overall 30-day mortality for HA-BSIs was 17.2%, compared to 10.6% for CO-BSIs, with an average yearly increase per 100,000 hospital admissions of 2 and 5% respectively. The proportion of patients with one or more comorbidities, increased from 20.8 to 55.3%. In multivariate analyses, risk factors for mortality within 30 days were: HA-BSI (2.22); two or more comorbidities (1.89); single comorbidity (1.56); CO-BSI (1.21); male (1.05); and high age (1.04).

Conclusion: this survey revealed an alarming increase in the incidence of BSI over the 14-year study period. Interventions to decrease BSI in general should be considered together with robust antibiotic stewardship programmes to avoid both over- and underuse of antibiotics.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Public Library of Science, 2016
National Category
General Practice
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-132733 (URN)10.1371/journal.pone.0166527 (DOI)000387779200055 ()
Note

Funding agencies: Ostergotland County Council (Hakan Hanberger ALF)

Available from: 2016-11-21 Created: 2016-11-21 Last updated: 2024-01-10Bibliographically approved
2. Low incidence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in south-east Sweden: An epidemiologic study on 9268 cases of bloodstream infection
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Low incidence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in south-east Sweden: An epidemiologic study on 9268 cases of bloodstream infection
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2020 (English)In: PLOS ONE, E-ISSN 1932-6203, Vol. 15, no 3, article id e0230501Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Objectives The aim of this study was to investigate the epidemiology of bloodstream infections (BSI) in a Swedish setting, with focus on risk factors for BSI-associated mortality. Methods A 9-year (2008-2016) retrospective cohort study from electronic records of episodes of bacteremia amongst hospitalized patients in the county of Ostergotland, Sweden was conducted. Data on episodes of BSI including microorganisms, antibiotic susceptibility, gender, age, hospital admissions, comorbidity, mortality and aggregated antimicrobial consumption (DDD /1,000 inhabitants/day) were collected and analyzed. Multidrug resistance (MDR) was defined as resistance to at least three groups of antibiotics. MDR bacteria and MRSA, ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae, vancomycin-resistant enterococci not fulfilling the MDR criteria were all defined as antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) bacteria and included in the statistical analysis of risk factors for mortality Results In all, 9,268 cases of BSI were found. The overall 30-day all-cause mortality in the group of patients with BSI was 13%. The incidence of BSI and associated 30-day all-cause mortality per 100,000 hospital admissions increased by 66% and 17% respectively during the nine-year study period. The most common species were Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Enterococcus faecalis. Independent risk factors for 30-day mortality were age (RR: 1.02 (CI: 1.02-1.03)) and 1, 2 or >= 3 comorbidities RR: 2.06 (CI: 1.68-2.52), 2.79 (CI: 2.27-3.42) and 2.82 (CI: 2.31-3.45) respectively. Almost 3% (n = 245) of all BSIs were caused by AMR bacteria increasing from 12 to 47 per 100,000 hospital admissions 2008-2016 (p = 0.01), but this was not associated with a corresponding increase in mortality risk (RR: 0.89 (CI: 0.81-0.97)). Conclusion Comorbidity was the predominant risk factor for 30-day all-cause mortality associated with BSI in this study. The burden of AMR was low and not associated with increased mortality. Patients with BSIs caused by AMR bacteria (MDR, MRSA, ESBL and VRE) were younger, had fewer comorbidities, and the 30-day all-cause mortality was lower in this group.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
PUBLIC LIBRARY SCIENCE, 2020
National Category
Infectious Medicine
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-166506 (URN)10.1371/journal.pone.0230501 (DOI)000535935400011 ()32470069 (PubMedID)
Available from: 2020-06-18 Created: 2020-06-18 Last updated: 2024-01-10
3. Prehospital delay is an important risk factor for mortality in community-acquired bloodstream infection (CA-BSI): a matched case–control study
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Prehospital delay is an important risk factor for mortality in community-acquired bloodstream infection (CA-BSI): a matched case–control study
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2021 (English)In: BMJ Open, E-ISSN 2044-6055, Vol. 11, no 11, article id e052582Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Objectives The aim of this study was to identify prehospital and early hospital risk factors associated with 30-day mortality in patients with blood culture-confirmed community-acquired bloodstream infection (CA-BSI) in Sweden.

Methods A retrospective case–control study of 1624 patients with CA-BSI (2015–2016), 195 non-survivors satisfying the inclusion criteria were matched 1:1 with 195 survivors for age, gender and microorganism. All forms of contact with a healthcare provider for symptoms of infection within 7 days prior CA-BSI episode were registered. Logistic regression was used to analyse risk factors for 30-day all-cause mortality.

Results Of the 390 patients, 61% (115 non-survivors and 121 survivors) sought prehospital contact. The median time from first prehospital contact till hospital admission was 13 hours (6–52) for non-survivors and 7 hours (3–24) for survivors (p<0.01). Several risk factors for 30-day all-cause mortality were identified: prehospital delay OR=1.26 (95% CI: 1.07 to 1.47), p<0.01; severity of illness (Sequential Organ Failure Assessment score) OR=1.60 (95% CI: 1.40 to 1.83), p<0.01; comorbidity score (updated Charlson Index) OR=1.13 (95% CI: 1.05 to 1.22), p<0.01 and inadequate empirical antimicrobial therapy OR=3.92 (95% CI: 1.64 to 9.33), p<0.01. In a multivariable model, prehospital delay >24 hours from first contact remained an important risk factor for 30-day all-cause mortality due to CA-BSI OR=6.17 (95% CI: 2.19 to 17.38), p<0.01.

Conclusion Prehospital delay and inappropriate empirical antibiotic therapy were found to be important risk factors for 30-day all-cause mortality associated with CA-BSI. Increased awareness and earlier detection of BSI in prehospital and early hospital care is critical for rapid initiation of adequate management and antibiotic treatment.All data relevant to the study are included in the article or uploaded as supplemental information.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
BMJ Publishing Group Ltd, 2021
Keywords
adult intensive & critical care; accident & emergency medicine; public health; infectious diseases; primary care
National Category
Cardiology and Cardiovascular Disease
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-181405 (URN)10.1136/bmjopen-2021-052582 (DOI)000720985600005 ()34794994 (PubMedID)
Funder
Region Östergötland
Note

Funding: Ostergotland Count Council

Available from: 2021-11-24 Created: 2021-11-24 Last updated: 2025-02-10Bibliographically approved

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