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Diagnosing pneumonia in primary care: Aspects of the value of clinical and laboratory findings and the use of chest X-ray
Linköping University, Department of Health, Medicine and Caring Sciences, Division of Prevention, Rehabilitation and Community Medicine. Linköping University, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences. Region Östergötland, Primary Care Center, Primary Health Care Center Kärna.ORCID iD: 0000-0001-5431-8469
2020 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

It is important to identify patients with pneumonia because it is potentially a serious disease, often of bacterial origin, that should be treated with antibiotics. It is equally important to identify those with acute bronchitis, a self-limiting disease, that should not be treated with antibiotics. Because bacterial resistance is increasing, over-prescribing of antibiotics should be avoided. However, it is sometimes difficult to differentiate between the two diagnoses, and guidelines concerning the assessment do not conform.  

The general aim of this thesis was to investigate if diagnostics of pneumonia in primary care can be improved and whether this could contribute to reduced prescription of antibiotics.  

As a first step, different anamnestic, clinical and laboratory findings and the doctor’s degree of suspicion of pneumonia in primary care were compared with chest X-ray (CXR) findings. The doctor’s degree of suspicion of pneumonia was shown to be a good predictor. When the physician was sure of the diagnosis, the likelihood for radiographic pneumonia was high and when quite sure, CXR was positive in less than half of the cases.  

To further improve the diagnostics of pneumonia, and thus reduce antibiotic prescriptions, patients were referred for CXR when the physician was unsure or quite sure of a pneumonia diagnosis. The intervention did not result in any decrease in antibiotic prescriptions compared with a control group. However, it emerged that the physicians did not fully trust the CXR outcome, but prescribed antibiotics even when the results were negative.  

To gain insight into the contribution of C-reactive protein (CRP) levels to the degree of suspicion, physicians were asked to estimate their degree of suspicion of pneumonia before and after CRP testing. CRP affected the degree of suspicion to a great extent, and most often resulted in a lowered degree of suspicion and thereby in the clinical decision of dismissing the diagnosis of pneumonia.  

The use of different diagnostic tests and prescription of antibiotics in the assessment of acute bronchitis and pneumonia over time was evaluated in a register-based study. The study showed that the use of diagnostic tests for both diagnoses has increased, and that there has been a reduction in antibiotic prescriptions for acute bronchitis.  

In conclusion, the doctor’s degree of suspicion of pneumonia seems to be a good predictor of the condition. When the physician is sure of the diagnosis, no further investigation is needed, and antibiotics can be prescribed on reliable grounds. CRP testing affects the degree of suspicion and is most valuable when unsure of the diagnosis where it can be helpful to exclude pneumonia. In contrast, more extensive use of CXR does not contribute to a decrease in antibiotic prescriptions in the diagnostics of pneumonia.

Abstract [sv]

Lunginflammation (pneumoni) och luftrörskatarr (akut bronkit) räknas till nedre luftvägsinfektioner. Eftersom lunginflammation är en allvarlig sjukdom, som ofta är orsakad av bakterier, bör den behandlas med antibiotika. Luftrörskatarr är däremot en självläkande sjukdom som oftast orsakas av virus och antibiotikaförskrivning bör därför undvikas. Då antibiotikaresistensen ökar bör överförskrivning av antibiotika undvikas. Därför är det är viktigt att läkaren ställer rätt diagnos. Ibland är det dock svårt att skilja diagnoserna åt och riktlinjerna för diagnostik skiljer sig mellan länder.

Det övergripande syftet med min avhandling var att undersöka om diagnostiken av lunginflammation i primärvården kan förbättras och om det skulle kunna bidra till minskad förskrivning av antibiotika. I den första studien jämfördes olika undersökningsfynd och läkarens grad av misstanke om lunginflammation med lungröntgenresultat. Läkarens misstanke om lunginflammation visade sig vara en bra prediktor när misstankegraden värderades som ’säker’. När misstankegraden värderades som ’ganska säker’ var lungröntgen positiv i mindre än hälften av fallen.

För att ytterligare skärpa diagnostiken och minska antibiotikaförskrivningen gjordes en uppföljande interventionsstudie. Patienter remitterades för lungröntgenundersökning när läkaren misstänkte lunginflammation men inte var helt säker på diagnosen. Resultaten jämfördes med en kontrollgrupp. Interventionen resulterade inte i någon minskad förskrivning av antibiotika. Det visades sig däremot att läkarna inte helt litar på lungröntgenresultatet utan till viss del föreskriver antibiotika även när röntgen är normal.

I vilken utsträckning analys av C-reaktivt protein (CRP) bidrar till läkarens misstanke om lunginflammation undersöktes genom att läkare fick värdera sin misstankegrad före och efter testning. CRP-resultatet visade sig påverka graden av misstanke i stor utsträckning, och ofta leda till att misstanken om lunginflammation kunde avfärdas.

Användningen av diagnostiska tester och antibiotikaförskrivning över tid vid nedre luftvägsinfektioner undersöktes i en registerstudie. Antibiotikaförskrivningen har visat sig minska vid luftrörskatarr samtidigt som användning av diagnostiska tester ökat vid diagnostik av både luftrörskatarr och lunginflammation.

Sammanfattningsvis är läkarens misstanke om lunginflammation en bra prediktor för lunginflammation och när läkaren är säker på diagnosen behövs ingen vidare utredning utan antibiotika kan förskrivas på trovärdiga grunder. CRP påverkar läkarens misstanke om lunginflammation i hög grad och när läkaren är osäker på diagnosen kan CRP bidra till att misstanken kan avfärdas. Ökad användning av diagnostiska tester vid diagnostik av luftrörskatarr och lunginflammation indikerar ett behov av diagnostiska hjälpmedel. Resultaten stödjer våra svenska riktlinjer där CRP och lungröntgen inte rekommenderas i den initiala handläggningen men kan övervägas vid oklar nedre luftvägsinfektion. 

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Linköping: Linköping University Electronic Press, 2020. , p. 71
Series
Linköping University Medical Dissertations, ISSN 0345-0082 ; 1746
National Category
General Practice Infectious Medicine
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-170226DOI: 10.3384/diss.diva-170226ISBN: 9789179298142 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:liu-170226DiVA, id: diva2:1472650
Public defence
2020-11-12, Belladonna, Universitetssjukhuset, Campus US, Linköping, 09:00 (Swedish)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2020-10-02 Created: 2020-10-02 Last updated: 2020-12-07Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Community-acquired pneumonia in primary care: clinical assessment and the usability of chest radiography
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Community-acquired pneumonia in primary care: clinical assessment and the usability of chest radiography
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2016 (English)In: Scandinavian Journal of Primary Health Care, ISSN 0281-3432, E-ISSN 1502-7724, Vol. 34, no 1, p. 21-27Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Objectives: To investigate the diagnostic value of different clinical and laboratory findings in pneumonia and to explore the association between the doctors degree of suspicion and chest X-ray (CXR) result and to evaluate whether or not CXR should be used routinely in primary care, when available. Design: A three-year prospective study was conducted between September 2011 and December 2014. Setting: Two primary care settings in Linkoping, Sweden. Subjects: A total of 103 adult patients with suspected pneumonia in primary care. Main outcome measures: The physicians recorded results of a standardized medical physical examination, including laboratory results, and rated their suspicion into three degrees. The outcome of the diagnostic variables and the degree of suspicion was compared with the result of CXR. Results: Radiographic pneumonia was reported in 45% of patients. When the physicians were sure of the diagnosis radiographic pneumonia was found in 88% of cases (p<0.001), when quite sure the frequency of positive CXR was 45%, and when not sure 28%. Elevated levels of C-reactive protein (CRP)50mg/L were associated with the presence of radiographic pneumonia when the diagnosis was suspected (p<0.001). Conclusion: This study indicates that CXR can be useful if the physician is not sure of the diagnosis, but when sure one can rely on ones judgement without ordering CXR.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
TAYLOR & FRANCIS LTD, 2016
Keywords
Chest radiography; clinical assessment; community-acquired pneumonia; C-reactive protein; general practice; primary care; Sweden
National Category
Basic Medicine
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-127062 (URN)10.3109/02813432.2015.1132889 (DOI)000372023200005 ()26849394 (PubMedID)
Note

Funding Agencies|County Council of ostergotland

Available from: 2016-04-13 Created: 2016-04-13 Last updated: 2020-10-02
2. Use of chest X-ray in the assessment of community acquired pneumonia in primary care - an intervention study
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Use of chest X-ray in the assessment of community acquired pneumonia in primary care - an intervention study
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2020 (English)In: Scandinavian Journal of Primary Health Care, ISSN 0281-3432, E-ISSN 1502-7724, Vol. 38, no 3, p. 323-329Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Objectives The aim of this study was to explore if consequent use of chest X-ray (CXR), when the physician is not sure of the diagnosis of pneumonia after clinical examination and CRP-testing, favors a more restrictive prescribing of antibiotics. Design This was an intervention study conducted between September 2015 and December 2017. Setting Two intervention primary health care centers (PHCCs) and three control PHCCs in the southeast of Sweden. Intervention All patients were referred for CXR when the physician s suspicion of pneumonia was unsure, or quite sure after CRP-testing. Control units managed patients according to their usual routine after clinical examination and CRP-testing. Subjects A total of 104 patients were included in the intervention group and 81 patients in the control group. The inclusion criteria of the study were clinically suspected pneumonia in patients >= 18 years, with respiratory symptoms for more than 24 h. Main outcome measure:Antibiotic prescribing rate. Results In the intervention group, 85% were referred for CXR and 69% were prescribed antibiotics, as compared to 26% and 77% in the control group. The difference in antibiotic prescribing rate was not statistically significant, unadjusted OR 0.68 [0.35-1.3] and adjusted OR 1.1 [CI 0.43-3.0]. A total of 24% of patients with negative CXR were prescribed antibiotics. Conclusion This study could not prove that use of CXR when the physician was not sure of the diagnosis of pneumonia results in lowered antibiotic prescribing rate in primary care. In cases of negative findings on CXR the physicians do not seem to rely on the outcome when it comes to antibiotic prescribing.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Taylor & Francis, 2020
Keywords
Family practice; pneumonia; chest X-ray; antibiotics; general practice; intervention; primary care
National Category
General Practice
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-168549 (URN)10.1080/02813432.2020.1794404 (DOI)000551614000001 ()32705941 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-85088535684 (Scopus ID)
Available from: 2020-08-26 Created: 2020-08-26 Last updated: 2021-05-04Bibliographically approved
3. Change in the use of diagnostic tests in the management of lower respiratory tract infections: a register-based study in primary care
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Change in the use of diagnostic tests in the management of lower respiratory tract infections: a register-based study in primary care
2020 (English)In: BJGP Open, ISSN 2398-3795, Vol. 4, no 1Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Background Differentiating between pneumonia and acute bronchitis is often difficult in primary care. There is no consensus regarding clinical decision rules for pneumonia, and guidelines differ between countries. Use of diagnostic tests and change of management over time is not known.

Aim To calculate the proportion of diagnostic tests in the management of lower respiratory tract infections (LRTIs) in a low antibiotic prescribing country, and to evaluate if the use and prescription pattern has changed over time.

Design & setting A register-based study on data from electronic health records from January 2006 to December 2014 in the Kronoberg county of south east Sweden.

Method Data regarding use of C-reactive protein (CRP), chest x-rays (CXRs), microbiological tests, and antibiotic prescriptions were assessed for patients aged 18–79 years, with the diagnosis pneumonia, acute bronchitis, or cough.

Results A total of 54 229 sickness episodes were analysed. Use of CRP increased during the study period from 61.3% to 77.5% for patients with pneumonia (P<0.001), and from 53.4% to 65.7% for patients with acute bronchitis (P<0.001). Use of CXR increased for patients with acute bronchitis from 3.1% to 5.1% (P<0.001). Use of microbiological tests increased for patients with pneumonia, from 1.8% to 5.1% (P<0.001). The antibiotic prescription rate decreased from 18.6 to 8.2 per 1000 inhabitants per year for patients with acute bronchitis, but did not change for patients with pneumonia.

Conclusion Use of CRP and microbiological tests in the diagnostics of LRTIs increased despite the fact that the incidence of pneumonia and acute bronchitis was stable.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
London, United Kingdom: Royal College of General Practitioners, 2020
Keywords
community-acquired pneumonia, Primary care, management, C-reactive protein, chest X-ray, antibiotics, anti-bacterial agents
National Category
Infectious Medicine
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-170219 (URN)10.3399/bjgpopen20X101015 (DOI)2-s2.0-85087083720 (Scopus ID)
Note

Forskningsfinansiär: Medical Research Council of Southeast Sweden (reference number: FORSS-931097)

Available from: 2020-10-02 Created: 2020-10-02 Last updated: 2020-10-20Bibliographically approved

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