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First Episodes of Norovirus and Sapovirus Gastroenteritis Protect Against Subsequent Episodes in a Nicaraguan Birth Cohort
Department of Family Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC.
Center of Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, National Autonomous University of Nicaragua-León, León, Nicaragua.ORCID iD: 0000-0001-9467-2438
Department of Biostatistics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC.
Center of Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, National Autonomous University of Nicaragua-León, León, Nicaragua.
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2022 (English)In: Epidemiology, ISSN 1044-3983, E-ISSN 1531-5487, Vol. 33, no 5, p. 650-653Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Background: Norovirus and sapovirus cause a large burden of acute gastroenteritis (AGE) in young children. We assessed protection conferred by norovirus and sapovirus AGE episodes against future episodes.

Methods: Between June 2017 and July 2018, we recruited 444 newborns in León, Nicaragua. Weekly household surveys identified AGE episodes over 36 months, and AGE stools were tested by reverse transcriptase-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) for norovirus genogroup (G)I/GII and sapovirus. We used recurrent-event Cox models and negative control methods to estimate protection conferred by first episodes, controlling for observed and unobserved risk factors, respectively.

Results: Sapovirus episodes conferred a 69% reduced hazard of subsequent episodes using the negative control method. Norovirus GI (hazard ratio [HR] = 0.67; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.31, 1.3) and GII (HR = 0.20; 95% CI = 0.04, 0.44) episodes also appeared highly protective. Protection against norovirus GII was enhanced following two episodes.

Conclusions: Evidence of natural immunity in early childhood provides optimism for the future success of pediatric norovirus and sapovirus vaccines.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
2022. Vol. 33, no 5, p. 650-653
Keywords [en]
Children, Diarrhea, Gastroenteritis, Nicaragua, Norovirus, Sapovirus
National Category
Microbiology in the medical area
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-190009DOI: 10.1097/EDE.0000000000001500OAI: oai:DiVA.org:liu-190009DiVA, id: diva2:1711254
Available from: 2022-11-16 Created: 2022-11-16 Last updated: 2024-01-10
In thesis
1. Norovirus and rotavirus susceptibility: studies from a Nicaraguan birth cohort
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Norovirus and rotavirus susceptibility: studies from a Nicaraguan birth cohort
2022 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Norovirus and rotavirus are major causes of pediatric acute gastroenteritis (AGE). It is estimated that norovirus is responsible for ~20% of all diarrheal diseases in children worldwide and causes approximately 200,000 deaths each year, mostly in young children and the elderly. Despite this vast disease burden, there is no licensed vaccine available. The introduction of universal infant rotavirus vaccination has led to marked reductions in diarrhea incidence and diarrhea-associated mortality in children. However, rotavirus continues to cause a high disease burden, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC), associated with an estimated 128,500 deaths in young children. Susceptibility to both norovirus and rotavirus AGE is strongly associated with the secretor phenotype (expression of specific glycans in mucosa and secretions). This, along with the Lewis phenotype and ABO group form the differential expression of histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) in the mucosa. These HBGAs can act as putative receptors or attachment factors facilitating infection of these viruses.   

The overall aim of this thesis was to address outstanding questions regarding susceptibility and immunity to norovirus and rotavirus infections in children. These questions are of relevance for understanding the effects of a future norovirus vaccine and factors influencing vaccine protection. Our questions were addressed by investigating norovirus and rotavirus disease burden, molecular epidemiology, and the role of HBGAs in susceptibility in children enrolled in a rotavirus-vaccinated birth cohort in Nicaragua. We further estimated the breadth and duration of immune response and protection after the first norovirus AGE episode.   

Our results showed that the incidence of rotavirus and norovirus was 9.3 and 21.9 per 100 child-years, respectively. Several different norovirus genotypes were observed (n=13), the most common being GII.4 (42%), GI.3 (18%), GII.12 (9%) and GII.17 (9%). Genotype GII.4 was not only the most common genotype but also infected children earlier in life and caused more severe AGE episodes compared to other genotypes. In contrast, the distribution of rotavirus genotypes was limited and dominated by animal-derived strains and the absence of the wild-type G1P[8] genotype, which is the component of the Rotarix vaccine used in Nicaragua. Secretor children had the highest risk of norovirus AGE, with the predominant and clinically more severe GII.4 genotype only observed in secretors. Secretor children also had the highest risk for rotavirus AGE after vaccination. This is of particular interest since previous studies have observed that non-secretors have a less immune response after vaccination of the live oral rotavirus vaccines. Hence, the mediation of protection against rotavirus AGE for these children is likely due to genetic resistance to wild-type infections and not by vaccine-induced immune protection.  

Using surrogate neutralization assays, we observed that the antibody-mediated immune response after the first AGE episode of norovirus GII.4 persisted for about 19 months, thus suggesting a relatively long-term protection. We further found that the immune response against GII.4 was genotype-specific in a significant proportion (60%) of children. The multitypic response exhibited in some children could be due to asymptomatic infections with two or more genotypes over the studied period. Using statistical models, we found that one episode of norovirus GI and norovirus GII conferred approximately 33% and 80% reduced hazard against future genogroup-specific episodes in the first 3 years of life, respectively.  

In summary, the results presented in this thesis suggest that a pediatric norovirus vaccine including norovirus GII.4, and given early in life, would significantly reduce the high burden of diarrheal disease in young children, particularly for secretors.   

Abstract [sv]

Norovirus, som orsakar vinterkräksjukan, och rotavirus är bland de vanligaste orsakerna bakom diarré och kräkningar hos barn. Norovirus orsakar årligen uppskattningsvis 20% av alla diarrésjukdomar över hela världen och cirka 200 000 dödsfall, främst hos små barn och äldre. Trots denna stora sjukdomsbörda finns inget vaccin tillgängligt. För rotavirus finns det vacciner som dramatiskt har minskat både sjukdomsbörda och dödlighet. Rotavirus fortsätter dock att utgöra ett allvarligt hälsoproblem hos barn, särskilt i låginkomstländer och uppskattningsvis 130 000 barn dör årligen. Resultaten av många studier har visat att det finns en genetisk komponent som gör oss mer mottagliga eller resistenta mot dessa virus. Denna komponent kallas för histo-blodgrupps antigener, som är sockermolekyler som uttrycks i sekret och på flera ställen i vår kropp inklusive tarmen. Där kan de användas av virusen för att lättare infektera cellen. Det finns så kallade sekretorer (individer som uttrycker och utsöndrar specifika sockermolekyler) och icke-sekretorer (som inte uttrycker dessa sockermolekyler). Sekretorer är vanligast globalt sett men det finns stora variationer mellan olika befolkningsgrupper.

Det övergripande syftet med min avhandling var att studera mottaglighet och immunitet mot norovirus och rotavirusinfektioner hos barn. Dessa frågor är av relevans för att förstå effekten av ett framtida norovirus vaccin och faktorer som påverkar hur bra vaccinerna skyddar. Först undersökte jag sjukdomsbördan orsakad av norovirus och rotavirus hos rotavirus vaccinerade barn som följdes från födseln fram till tre års ålder i Nicaragua. Jag undersökte vidare på vilket sätt sekretor status påverkade mottaglighet till infektion och sjukdom i denna grupp. Slutligen undersökte jag om barn som har varit infekterade av norovirus är skyddade mot framtida infektioner och hur länge skyddet varar.

Mina resultat visade att norovirus orsakade cirka 20% av diarrésjukdomarna hos barnen. Barnen som var sekretorer hade högre risk att drabbas. En speciell typ av norovirus, GII.4, var vanligast samt orsakade den allvarligaste diarrén och infekterade barnen från en yngre ålder jämfört med andra typer. Vidare visade resultaten att de flesta barn som infekterades av GII.4 hade ett skydd mot denna typ i cirka 19 månader men kunde infekteras med andra typer. Med hjälp av statistiska modeller uppskattades att en första infektion av norovirus skyddar barn med upp till 80% mot diarré eller kräkningar orsakad av samma grupp av norovirus under de första 3 åren av livet.

Resultaten visade en dramatisk minskning av rotavirusfall jämfört med tiden före vaccination, men vissa vaccinerade barn var fortfarande mottagliga för rotavirus. Precis som för norovirus hade barn som var sekretorer den högsta risken att drabbas av rotavirus orsakad diarré. Detta är i linje med tidigare studier som visat att icke-sekretor barn skyddas mot rotavirussjukdom genom en naturlig resistens snarare än genom skyddet av rotavirusvaccinet. Denna information är inte bara viktig för att förstå skyddet efter rotavirusvaccination utan även gällande framtida norovirusvaccin då virusen har ett liknande mönster gällande vilka barn som är mest mottagliga för sjukdom.

Sammanfattningsvis tyder resultaten i min avhandling på att ett framtida vaccin som innehåller norovirus av typen GII.4 och ges tidigt i livet kommer att stor effekt i att minska sjukdomsbördan av diarrésjukdomar hos barn.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Linköping: Linköping University Electronic Press, 2022. p. 61
Series
Linköping University Medical Dissertations, ISSN 0345-0082 ; 1826
Keywords
Norovirus, Rotavirus, Birth cohort, Gastroenteritis, Incidence, Children, Secretor, Immune response.
National Category
Infectious Medicine
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-190011 (URN)10.3384/9789179295264 (DOI)9789179295257 (ISBN)9789179295264 (ISBN)
Public defence
2022-12-19, Belladonna, Building 511, Campus US, Linköping, 13:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2022-11-16 Created: 2022-11-16 Last updated: 2024-01-10Bibliographically approved

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Reyes, Yaoska

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