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Flexible Automation in Air Traffic Control Through Adaptation of Human-Automation Collaboration
Linköping University, Department of Science and Technology, Media and Information Technology. Linköping University, Faculty of Science & Engineering.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-7917-5924
2023 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Many domains currently experience an increase in level of automation of their technical systems. However, the increased level of automation must be accompanied with the development of well-functioning human-automation collaboration to avoid undesirable phenomena such as automation surprises or reduced situational awareness. In safety critical domains like air traffic control, this may be more than an inconvenience or loss of efficiency: in the worst case, it can jeopardize flight safety. Although these issues and risks related to increased automation are well-known, they continue to appear in new systems. This indicates that they are not sufficiently addressed in the design of new automation, and that better methods and ideas for this must be developed. This dissertation explores how the concept of flexible automation can be used to increase the understanding of how to design for better human-automation collaboration. The fundamental idea of the flexible automation concept is to provide the automation with knowledge about the human’s situation and let the automation combine that with its understanding of the overall situation, including mutual work- and control processes. At a conceptual level, this also widens the view on automation as merely a way to replace human labor, to a view on automation where it enhances the joint performance of the human-automation team. It also emphasizes the human as an essential piece of a successful automation. Though being important and applicable to many areas and domains, this dissertation is mainly focused on the air traffic control domain, but also includes elements from the domains of vessel traffic service and train traffic management. 

The approach for the dissertation has been to use the known problems and issues with automation as a starting point, and then decompose that complex of problems and explore them to find possible solutions. Initiation of communication between automation and human, how and when it is performed, were identified as one critical point in the human-automation collaboration. This insight formed the basis for the two main concepts presented in this dissertation. The first concept is the Reduced Autonomy Workspace (RAW), a design approach that describes the process of when a highly autonomous automation needs to consult the human working together with the automation. Focus is on the temporal aspects, but it also includes transformation of the information content to reduce the cognitive effort on the human receiving the information. A visualization for future automation using glyphs based on the same principles was developed to support the RAW design approach. The glyphs were evaluated in workshops with operators from air traffic control, vessel traffic service, and train traffic management, respectively. The second main concept is a new type of attention support, Soft Visual Cues (SVC). The SVC complements other types of attention support which may, due to the automation’s lack of knowledge of the overall situation, draw the operator’s attention away from something potentially more important. Different designs were evaluated in operator workshops and tested by other air traffic controllers in a series of real-time simulations. In addition to these concepts, studies have also been performed to explore and gain a deeper knowledge of how the involved control processes can be understood, the effect of entangled control processes, and how domain specific prerequisites are reflected in the control processes. 

The studies have involved subject matter experts, such as air traffic controllers, to understand the processes that underlies human-automation team-work. However, data collection through workshops and simulations has been challenging because of the pandemic, even though most activities were possible to perform. The results have contributed to a better understanding of the design for human-automation collaboration, the importance of temporal aspects in this, and how it can be visualized. While the RAW and the glyph visualizations aims at future automations, the SVC is a concept that could be implemented in a near future. The problems and proposed solutions in this dissertation are mainly focused on applications in air traffic control. However, the problems and issues addressed here are similar in many other areas focused on control of real-time processes. Therefore, the presented ideas and concepts should be of value for those as well, and the results are a good starting point for the development of tomorrow’s flexible automation, where the human is still a major asset. 

Abstract [sv]

Ökad automatisering av tekniska system pågår inom många områden. För att den ökade automationsgraden ska ge önskad nytta måste också samarbetet mellan människa och automation utvecklas, annars riskerar man att få problem med exempelvis automationsöverraskningar och minskad situationsmedvetenhet hos användarna. I säkerhetskritiska domäner som flyg-trafikledning kan det i värsta fall leda till direkt farliga situationer. Trots att utmaningarna och riskerna med automation är välkända återkommer problemen ofta i nya system. Det tyder på att frågorna inte hanteras tillräckligt i utformningen av ny automation och att det behövs bättre metoder och idéer för att identifiera och motverka problemen. I avhandlingen utforskar jag hur konceptet följsam automation kan öka förståelsen för hur ny automation ska designas för att skapa ett bättre samarbete mellan människa och automation. Den grundläggande idén med följsam automation är att ge automationen kunskap om människans situation och kombinera den med kunskap om de processer som människan och automationen tillsammans arbetar med. Konceptet vidgar synen på automation från att enbart ersätta människan med teknik till ett perspektiv där den totala prestationen människa-automation blir större än summan av de enskilda delarna och där människan fortfarande spelar en viktig roll. Det här skulle kunna tillämpas inom många olika områden, men fokus för avhandlingen är flygtrafikledningsdomänen, även om den till viss del också berör sjötrafikinformationstjänst och tågtrafikledning.

Utgångspunkten i avhandlingen är de redan kända utmaningarna med ökad automation och från det har problematiken brutits ner för att hitta förslag på lösningar. Ett avgörande moment i samarbetet mellan människa och automation är när automationen initierar kommunikation med människan. Den insikten har resulterat i två centrala koncept som presenteras i avhandlingen. Det första konceptet är designansatsen Reduced Autonomy Workspace (RAW) som beskriver hur anpassning av kommunikation mellan automation och människa kan utformas för situationer när automationen måste konsultera människan. De temporala aspekterna är mycket viktiga och designansatsen inkluderar också hur automationen ska transformera informationen till ett format som kräver så lite kognitiv ansträngning som möjligt för människan. En glyfbaserad visualisering för användning i framtida högautomatiserade system baserad på designansatsen RAW togs fram och utvärderades i ett an-tal workshops med operativa domänexperter från flygtrafikledning, sjötrafikinformationstjänst och tågtrafikledning. Det andra konceptet är en ny typ av visualiseringskoncept för uppmärksamhetsstöd, Soft Visual Cues (SVC), eller mjuka visuella påminnelser. Mjuka visuella påminnelser kompletterar andra typer av uppmärksamhetsstöd som aktivt drar uppmärksamheten till sig, vilket kan vara ett problem om användaren är upptagen med något viktigare som automationen på grund av en bristande helhetsbild inte känner till. Olika designalternativ utvärderades i workshopform tillsammans med flygledare och den föredragna designen testades sedan i realtidssimuleringar med andra flygledare. Utöver de framarbetade koncepten har också studier genomförts för att skapa en djupare förståelse för de ingående kontrollprocesserna, hur de påverkar varandra och hur domänspecifika förutsättningar avspeglas i dem.

För att förstå de processer som utgör samarbetet mellan människa och automation så har flera av studierna involverat domänexperter, till exempel flygledare. Insamlingen av data genom workshops och realtidssimuleringar har varit en utmaning utöver det vanliga då en stor del av arbetet utfördes under Covid-19-pandemin, men trots detta har det mesta gått att genomföra som planerat. Resultaten har bidragit till en utökad kunskap om design av interaktion mellan automation och människa, vikten av temporala aspekter, samt hur det kan visualiseras. Designansatsen RAW och glyferna bidrar med kunskap främst riktad mot framtida system, medan mjuka visuella påminnelser är en lösning som skulle kunna implementeras i närtid. Problemen och de föreslagna lösningsansatserna i avhandlingen är huvudsakligen applicerade på flygtrafikledning. Den grundläggande problematiken runt samarbete människa-automation i kontroll av realtidsprocesser är dock den-samma inom många områden. De presenterade idéerna och koncepten bör därför kunna tillämpas även inom andra domäner och ge goda förutsättningar för att med människan som utgångspunkt designa framtidens följsamma automation.  

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Linköping: Linköping University Electronic Press, 2023. , p. 99
Series
Linköping Studies in Science and Technology. Dissertations, ISSN 0345-7524 ; 2343
Keywords [en]
Human-Automation Collaboration, Flexible Automation, Interactive Information Visualization, Air Traffic Control
National Category
Human Computer Interaction
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-199042DOI: 10.3384/9789180753371ISBN: 9789180753180 (print)ISBN: 9789180753371 (electronic)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:liu-199042DiVA, id: diva2:1810508
Public defence
2023-12-12, K3, Kåkenhus, Campus Norrköping, Norrköping, 09:15 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2023-11-08 Created: 2023-11-08 Last updated: 2024-03-20Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Attention Support with Soft Visual Cues in Control Room Environments
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Attention Support with Soft Visual Cues in Control Room Environments
2020 (English)In: 2020 24TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE INFORMATION VISUALISATION (IV 2020), IEEE , 2020, p. 160-165Conference paper, Published paper (Refereed)
Abstract [en]

In visually demanding environments like working positions in air traffic control, there is a risk of missing important information. Attention support might help to reduce this, but there is a risk that it introduces new issues in the form of distractions or increased visual load. The work presented in this paper explores the concept of Soft Visual Cues, with the aim to make the operator aware of missing information, but doing it discreetly enough only to be noticed when the operator is scanning the area where the information is present, thereby complementing the concepts of attention guidance, alarms, and subtle gaze direction. The qualitative evaluation performed aimed primarily at catching the operators (air traffic controllers) first impressions. Focus was on air traffic control, but was complemented with vessel traffic service and train control environments and operators. The results from air traffic control showed a preference for symbol property changes related to geometry rather than for colour or opacity changes as soft visual cues. The comparison to the other domains highlighted the contextual dependence, visual context and process context, of the concept.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
IEEE, 2020
Series
IEEE International Conference on Information Visualization, ISSN 1550-6037
Keywords
Soft visual cues; attention support; adaptive automation; interactive visualization; air traffic control; train control; vessel traffic service
National Category
Computer Sciences
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-181640 (URN)10.1109/IV51561.2020.00035 (DOI)000712013300025 ()9781728191348 (ISBN)
Conference
24th International Conference Information Visualisation (IV), ELECTR NETWORK, sep 07-11, 2020
Note

Funding Agencies|Swedish Transport Administration

Available from: 2021-12-06 Created: 2021-12-06 Last updated: 2023-11-08
2. Reduced autonomy workspace (RAW) - an interaction design approach for human-automation cooperation
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Reduced autonomy workspace (RAW) - an interaction design approach for human-automation cooperation
2022 (English)In: Cognition, Technology & Work, ISSN 1435-5558, E-ISSN 1435-5566, Vol. 24, p. 261-273Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Lack of support for handling a reduction of autonomy in a highly autonomous automation may lead to a stressful situation for a human when forced to take over. We present a design approach, the Reduced Autonomy Workspace, to address this. The starting point is that the human and the automation work together in parallel control processes, but at different levels of autonomy cognitive control, such as setting goals or implementing plans, which is different from levels of automation. When autonomy is reduced, the automation should consult the human by providing information that has been aligned to the level at which the human is working, and the timing of the provision should be adapted to suit the humans work situation. This is made possible by allowing the automation to monitor the human in a separate process. The combination of these processes, information level alignment and timing of the presentation, are the key characteristics of the Reduced Autonomy Workspace. The Reduced Autonomy Workspace consists of four phases: Identification of the need; evaluation of whether, and, if so, when, and how to present information; perception and response by the human; implementation of a solution by the automation. The timing of the information presentation should be adapted in real-time to provide flexibility, while the level of the information provided should be tuned offline and kept constant to provide predictability. Use of the Reduced Autonomy Workspace can reduce the risk for surprising, stressful hand-over situations, and the need to monitor the automation to avoid them.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Springer London Ltd, 2022
Keywords
Reduced autonomy workspace; Levels of autonomy in cognitive control; Joint control framework; Air traffic management; Levels of automation; Automation ironies
National Category
Production Engineering, Human Work Science and Ergonomics
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-182616 (URN)10.1007/s10111-022-00695-2 (DOI)000746814300001 ()
Note

Funding Agencies|Linkoping University; Swedish Transport Administration [TRV 2018/41347]

Available from: 2022-02-01 Created: 2022-02-01 Last updated: 2023-11-08Bibliographically approved
3. Modelling operator control work across traffic management domains: implications for interaction design
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Modelling operator control work across traffic management domains: implications for interaction design
Show others...
2024 (English)In: Cognition, Technology & Work, ISSN 1435-5558, E-ISSN 1435-5566Article in journal (Refereed) Epub ahead of print
Abstract [en]

Traffic management in aviation, shipping, and rail transport shows similarities and dissimilarities in the work process. For example, they share the temporal aspect, but different levels of urgency in the control work set different requirements on monitoring, decisions, and actions. However, few studies have been presented that model and compare the different domains in terms of temporal decision-making. The Joint Control Framework (JCF) is an approach to analyse and temporally model operators’ control processes from a cognitive systems engineering perspective. In this study, we have used JCF to map, and compare, cognitive joints, such as perceptions, decisions, and actions, in temporally challenging control situations in air traffic control, maritime vessel traffic service, and train traffic management. Data was collected collaboratively with traffic operators, focusing on (1) identifying challenging traffic situations and (2) jointly modelling the temporal decision-making patterns of these situations using simplified JCF. Post-analysis was done by breaking down the results into different processes and comparing domains to ascertain how operators maintain control. An intermediate level of activity—between general monitoring and work with specific vehicles—was identified: processes-in-focus. A shared problem arises in the shift between general monitoring and the processes-in-focus. All processes-in-focus comprise cognitive joint cycles of perceptions, decisions, and actions. However, depending on the framing of processes-in-focus, the patterns of joints, such as temporal extension and complexity, differ. In the remainder of the article, implications for the interaction design, in particular the potential for human–AI/automation teaming with higher levels of automation and cognitive autonomy, are discussed.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Springer, 2024
Keywords
Interaction design; Temporal modelling; Traffic management; Cognitive systems engineering; Human–AI/ automation teaming
National Category
Computer and Information Sciences
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-201766 (URN)10.1007/s10111-024-00754-w (DOI)001183431000001 ()
Funder
Swedish Transport Administration, TRV 2018/41347Swedish Transport Administration, TRV 2018/41347Swedish Transport Administration, TRV 2018/41347Swedish Transport Administration, TRV 2018/41347Swedish Transport Administration, TRV 2018/41347
Note

Funding: Swedish Transport Administration;  [F-AUTO (TRV 2018/41347)];  [TRV 2020/138317]

Available from: 2024-03-20 Created: 2024-03-20 Last updated: 2024-04-12

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