The purpose of the study was to investigate the influence of flotation REST upon skilled and less skilled golfers anxiety in terms of physiological indicators of stress, self-rated anxiety scores, muscle tension, and the effect on golf putting. Prior to performing the putting task participants underwent a treatment of flotation REST or a period of resting in an armchair. Participants completed both treatments in a randomized order with a two-week interval. The results showed that both flotation REST and the armchair treatment reduced systolic blood pressure and heart rate, with no differences between treatments or athlete skill levels. No significant differences between treatments were revealed regarding self-ratings, level of muscle tension or putting precision. The results indicate that flotation REST may be useful for reducing negative symptoms related to stress and anxiety in general; however, no support for direct positive effects on golf performance were found.

The present study validated a Swedish version of the 47‐item Coaching Behavior Scale for Sport (CBS‐S). Sample 1 consisted of 506 team sport athletes [262 men and 244 women; mean age: 22.20, standard deviation (SD) = 3.90] distributed across 41 coaches at the two highest national levels of various sports. Athletes completed the CBS‐S and established questionnaires of coaching behaviors (LSS), self‐confidence (CSAI‐2R), and coach–athlete relationship (CART‐Q). An additional sample of 39 basketball players (21 men and 18 women; mean age = 17.40, SD = 2.39) completed the CBS‐S twice, approximately 4 weeks apart. Confirmatory factor analysis showed an acceptable model fit for the seven‐factor version of the CBS‐S, although two items of the negative personal rapport subscale displayed insufficient factor loadings. Correlations between the subscales of the CBS‐S and established instruments were in accordance with theoretical expectations, supporting the concurrent validity. Cronbach's alpha (> 0.82) for all dimensions provided support for the reliability of the CBS‐S, and test‐retest correlations indicated moderate stability over time. Cultural differences in the assessment of coaching behaviors and the usability of the CBS‐S by coaches for self‐reflection and development are discussed.

Research examining the student-athlete experience proposes a number of factors that can be both sources of stress and/or support. The dual career pathway offers a number of potential positive outcomes including psychological, social, and financial benefits; however, challenges including time management, fatigue, and restricted social activities are well documented. In consideration of the multidimensional student-athlete experience and the numerous factors that influence the complexity of potential stress, a mixed methods research study design was used in the study. First, data collected from surveys completed by 173 elite junior alpine skiers were analyzed to identify the degree to which athletes report experiencing stress associated with specific aspects pertaining to training, life, and organizational factors. These factors were then explored through semi-structured interviews with six coaches at the associated national elite sport schools. Taken collectively, athletes reports of psychophysiological training stress on the Multidimensional Training Distress Scale were low. Scores on the college studentathletes life stress scale revealed very low levels of general life stress; although the subscales associated with "performance demand" and "academic requirements" scored marginally higher. Scores on the Organizational Stressor Indicator for Sport Performers indicated low levels of organizational stress. The interviews with coaches elucidated the underlying factors potentially influencing athletes positive adaptations to stress as they reported programming a number of strategies to reduce negative outcomes. Coaches aimed to teach athletes self-awareness and regulation strategies through the use of the training diaries and ongoing communication to promote positive adaptation to stress. A number of coaches also worked with sport psychology consultants to optimize athletes training and study situations. Traditionally, research has noted high levels of stress in student-athletes due to co-occurring demands (school amp; sport); however, the data in the present study suggests that optimizing support mechanisms across domains can promote positive adaptations to potential sources of stress.

The aims of this scoping review were to map the current literature on interventions for improving mental health in athletes, identify knowledge gaps, and generate future research questions. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guided this review. A systematic literature search was conducted in SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO, and SCOPUS and 44 intervention studies met the inclusion criteria. Results showed that 22 studies (50%) implemented cognitive behavioural principles, and the majority of these studies were influenced by various mindfulness programmes. Most studies (93%) included healthy athlete samples, and athletes aged 15–19 were the most examined age group (43%). Only three studies used clinical criteria in their sampling of participants and mediators were examined in two studies. The scarcity of studies examining mediators and subclinical or clinical samples revealed critical knowledge gaps in the literature. Furthermore, the critical appraisal showed that regardless of study design, most studies demonstrated low internal validity. We propose the use of high-quality single-case studies with athletes who experience subclinical or clinical mental health issues, and further investigation of mechanisms of change linking intervention components to outcomes of interest.

This study examined the factorial validity of the Eades Burnout Inventory (EABI) and the prevalence of burnout in adolescent elite athletes and whether burnout is more common in individual sports than in team sports. The EABI was distributed to 980 athletes (402 females and 578 males) in 29 different sports. Confirmatory-factor analyses revealed an acceptable factorial validity for a theoretically supported four-factor model of the EABI. Between 1% and 9% of the athletes displayed elevated burnout scores on these four subscales. The hypothesis of higher prevalence of burnout in individual sports was, however, not supported. Furthermore, no correlation between training load and burnout scores was found. These findings suggest that factors other than training load must be considered when athletes at risk for burnout are investigated.

The aim of this study was to gain a better understanding of the process of burning out in endurance athletes. The experiences of three elite cross-country skiers who left their sport due to burnout were explored. Semi-structured interviews were conducted and inductively analyzed. The Athlete Burnout Questionnaire and training logs were used to validate the interviews and to enrich the analysis. The burnout process was found to evolve with different severity and time perspectives in the three cases. Athletic identity and achievement strivings to validate self-esteem were found to be important driving forces in the burnout process. Also, chronic lack of mental and physical recovery as well as early skiing success leading to high expectations comprised common themes in the burnout process.

More than 30 years of research on athlete burnout has yielded important insights and questions regarding the onset, nature, and consequences of this detrimental syndrome. Not surprisingly, burnout is considered an important matter, both from a research and practical standpoint. We comment on the work of Ryu, Ali, Kim, Choi, and Radlo, who examined the impact of burnout on cognitive performance among athletes.

In sport psychology, the roots of mental skills training and performance enhancement strategies have been heavily influenced by the cognitive branch of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy. Some of the traditional methods in CBT, such as exposure and behavioural experiments, have not gained much attention despite strong research evidence of their effectiveness. This chapter will describe how exposure and behavioural experiments can be useful in working with performance enhancement in Olympic level athletes. Common procedures are outlined and lessons learned from the elite sport context are provided.

One common method in Cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) to treat anxiety problems is exposure, but there are few articles examining its applicability to sport. The aim of this article is to give a background of the use of exposure in sport and present a case of how exposure can be used with athletes. The athlete was a 17-year-old female cross-country skier with high levels of performance anxiety. In the case description, common procedures in CBT such as behavioral analysis, psychoeducation, and exposure are presented, as well as how anxiety can be managed. After the intervention the athlete perceived lower levels of anxiety as well as improved behavioral repertoire (e.g., less avoidant behaviors and more functional sport-specific behaviors). This case may be used to help practitioners consider the use of exposure in competitive sports.

Objective

In this study we examined the relationship between trait hope and burnout in elite junior soccer players and whether stress and positive and negative affect mediated this relationship.

Methods

Participants were 238 Swedish soccer players (166 males, 71 females; one did not indicate gender) aged 15–19 years who completed questionnaires measuring trait hope, perceived stress, positive and negative affect, and athlete burnout (i.e., emotional/physical exhaustion, a reduced sense of accomplishment, and sport devaluation).

Results

Bivariate correlations were consistent with hope theory contentions indicating significant negative relationships between hope and all three burnout dimensions. The relationship between hope and emotional/physical exhaustion was fully mediated by stress and positive affect. For sport devaluation and reduced sense of accomplishment, stress and positive affect partially mediated the relationship with hope. In contrast, negative affect did not mediate the relationship between hope and any of the burnout dimensions.

Conclusion

The results support earlier findings that hope is negatively related to athlete burnout. Support was also found for the hypothesis that high hope individuals would experience less stress and therefore less burnout. Promoting hope may be relevant in reducing the likelihood of this detrimental syndrome.

Precompetition anxiety levels are assumed to moderate athletic performance. Unfortunately, cross-sectional and nomothetic research designs have often shown non-significant findings; intra-individual variability may be a contributing factor. The extent of variability in precompetition anxiety and self-confidence responses as related to golf performance and trait measures were therefore examined using an idiographic approach. Individual patterns of variability were found for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety and Self-Confidence scores yielded prior to the games played. Variability in Somatic Anxiety was significantly related to variability in golf performance. Players low in anxiety variability scored significantly higher on Private Self-Consciousness. The findings suggest the influence of anxiety and self-confidence on performance may be better understood when trait characteristics of the individual are also considered.

In this study, we examined knowledge and understandingof sport-related injuries among youth athletics (track andfield) athletes and assessed their needs in managing anyhealth problems. Qualitative data were collected via 12focus groups with youth athletes (16–19 years) studying atSwedish sports high schools with an athletics specialism. Allfocus group discussions were audiorecorded and transcribedbefore being analysed using a thematic analysis approach.Four researchers independently reviewed the transcripts,generated codes and developed themes. Three overarchingthemes related to the athletes’ knowledge and understandingof sport-related injury were developed: (1) awareness ofinjuries, (2) perception of injuries, and (3) factors contributingto injuries. The youth athletes were typically uncertain abouthow to acknowledge a sport-related injury. They expressed thatknowledge about injuries was obtained in part by reflecting onthe lived experiences of their peers. It was also demonstratedthat there appears to be a ‘culture of acceptance’ regardinginjury occurrence. In contrast, causes of injuries were viewedas dependent on multiple factors (eg, lack of context-specificknowledge about training practices). Regarding athletes’needs in managing injuries, an additional three themes weredeveloped: (1) creating functioning elite sports environments,(2) application of knowledge and (3) fostering athletes. Anapparent lack of structure and organisation related to theschool environment was identified as an important issueto review to create opportunities for sustainable athleticdevelopment. The study identified areas that can be improvedin Swedish sports high schools with an athletic specialism andcould be applied in other youth sports contexts. The resultsof this study guide school stakeholders, alongside the sportgoverning bodies who have the mandate to influence activitiesin youth sports contexts, whereby special attention should bedirected towards improving the social environment for youthathletes.

Background Elite athletes are role models for young sportspersons regarding social media use. Self-objectification, including self-sexualizing, contributes to body dissatisfaction and body shame, especially in young females. For efficient prevention of self-objectification, knowledge is needed about elite athletes’ self-presentation on social media.

Objective To compare social media postings indicative of self-objectification among female elite athletes in an aesthetic and a non-aesthetic individual sport and by age.

Design Cross-sectional quantitative visual content analysis study.

Setting Instagram on October 1st, 2021.

Participants All Swedish elite female athletes aged 16 years or older with open Instagram accounts in figure skaters (n=26) and athletics (track and field) athletes (n=40).

Assessment of Risk Factors The 30 most recently posted images were identified from each athlete’s Instagram account (Figure). Following exclusion of non-topical images, a panel (4 women/4 men) individually scored factors indicative of self-objectification in the remaining images. The scores were analyzed quantitatively by sport (figure skating/athletics) and age group (age-cut at 21 years).

Main Outcome Measurements Proportion of sexually suggestive images in Instagram postings.

Results In total, 1,869 images were analyzed; 669 posted by figure skaters and 1200 by athletics athletes. Seventy-four images (4%) were classified as containing sexually suggestive content. Figure skaters posted more images with sexually suggestive content (p=0.032) than athletics athletes (especially images with sexual posing (p=0.005) and sexualized body parts in focus (chest (p=0.049); hip-region (p=0.001)). Younger athletes published more images interpreted to contain sexual suggestion than older athletes (p<0.001) (especially images focusing on the chest (p=0.008)). 

Conclusions Prevention of self-objectification in young female sportspersons should include moderation of self-presentation practices on social media among female elite athletes in aesthetic sports and young elite athletes in their upper teens. Further research on the role of social media in the etiology of mental unhealth in sportspersons is warranted. 

Sexual harassment and abuse (SHA) can have a profound negative impact, but research on SHA in sport is scarce and studies of SHA in Swedish sport are absent. This study explores (a) self-reported prevalence of SHA perpetrated by coaches among male and female Swedish athletes, and (b) descriptive statistics for coach–athlete relationship factors and the association between these relationship factors and reported SHA. Current and former Swedish club sport athletes (n = 477) aged 25 participated in the survey. Athletes reported 5.5% prevalence of coach SHA, of which inappropriate, unpleasant, or offensive physical contact were most common. No significant differences of SHA frequency were displayed across gender, sport performance levels, or individual/team sports. A majority of athletes (55–95%) reported trust, closeness, substantial coach influence over sport performance, and instructional physical contact as main coach–athlete relationship factors. A minority (13–39%) reported dependency, substantial coach influence over personal-life, non-instructional physical contact, sexualized comments and jokes, and flirting. Prevalence of coach–athlete friendships, athlete attraction to coaches, and coaches’ instructional physical contact differed significantly between male and female athletes. Closeness and athlete attraction to coaches were negatively related, and coaches’ non-instructional physical contact and flirting were positively related to reported SHA. Multi-causality and ambiguity of coach–athlete relationship factors are discussed.

Objectives: The aim of the study was to compare the effects of a brief body scan with relaxation as an active control group to better understand their respective contributions to the reduction of sleep problems and anxiety symptoms among adolescent athletes.

Method: Two hundred and six adolescent athletes were recruited during the school year 2016/2017 and randomized into four arms: 4 weeks body scan, 8 weeks body scan, 4 weeks relaxation, and 8 weeks relaxation. Sleep problems and anxiety were measured at baseline and 4, 8, and 16 weeks after baseline. Time trends in sleep problems and anxiety were estimated using linear repeated measures models and compared between the four groups.

Results: Overall, there were beneficial time changes for sleep problems and anxiety symptoms in all four intervention groups, but significantly so only for anxiety symptoms. Specifically, the reduction of anxiety symptoms varied between − 11% permonth for 8 weeks body scan,− 12% per month for 8 weeks relaxation, − 13% per month for 4 weeks relaxation, and − 16%per month for 4 weeks body scan. However, the time trends did not differ by intervention type or duration.

Conclusions: Both types of interventions had beneficial effects on anxiety independent of length of intervention, suggesting that a brief body scan as well as a brief relaxation could be part of a daily recovery practice for adolescent athletes.

När livet och idrotten fungerar som bäst mår man fint och prestationsförmågan är på topp. I detta drömläge är behovet av KBT, kognitiv beteendeterapi, mycket litet. Men det är få förunnat att befinna sig i detta läge tjugofyra timmar om dygnet – varken hälsa eller prestationsförmåga är någonting statiskt.

Bättre prestation & hälsa med KBT ger en introduktion till KBT och de vanligast förekommande problemområdena som finns förankrade i såväl den kliniska psykologin som i ett idrottsspecifikt sammanhang. Du får flera beskrivningar och exempel på hur behandlingar kan gå till väga.

Research has highlighted flotation-REST as a promising method for relaxation and performance enhancement in sport; however, to further evaluate the use of flotation-REST in an athletic environment, additional research is warranted. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with six elite track and field athletes about their experiences and perceived effects of flotation-REST. Athletes were interviewed twice; once for their immediate response and again to explore their perceptions of flotation-REST over time. The data was analyzed using interpretative phenomenological analysis. Flotation-REST was perceived as pleasant and relaxing. Five athletes reported less stress and an overall increase in well-being for one or two days afterwards, although they felt physically tired during training sessions. Being in a better mood, placing fewer demands on themselves, and feeling more optimistic and present were also perceived effects. This study shows the potential of flotation-REST as a technique for health promotion, stress management, and a means to practise mindfulness.

The purpose of this study was to explore the views and experiences of sport psychology consultants who have worked with perfectionistic elite athletes and, particularly, their views on the use of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). Semi-structured interviews were conducted with four professional sport psychology consultants who identified themselves as having experience of working with athletes they consider to be perfectionistic. Two themes were generated: manifestations of perfectionism, and management of perfectionism. The consultants found perfectionistic athletes to have rigid attitudes and strong negative emotional experiences, to use safety behaviors and to regularly underperform. CBT techniques such as mindfulness, cognitive restructuring, and psychological skills training were most commonly used and were largely viewed as effective against a backdrop of sporting environment that could often encourage athletes to be perfectionistic. The findings highlight the complexity of perfectionism from a consultancy perspective and the challenges associated with working with perfectionistic athletes.

The  Tokyo  Summer  Olympics  2020  were  postponed  by  a  year  due  to  Covid-19. This postponement came as a surprise to both athletes and support staff. How did the pandemic affect the Olympic preparations and the mental health of the athletes? Twelve athletes, both Norwegian and Swedish medal candidates from nine sports,  were  interviewed.  Norwegian and  Swedish  athletes  had  different  training  options,  but  they  tried  to  adapt  as  best they  could  to  current  situations  and  what  they were allowed to do. This resulted in different set of goals as they adapted to the conditions.

BackgroundDespite good physical function, many athletes do not return to sports after an anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR). One important reason for this is fear of new injury. The aim of this study was to investigate young athletes’ experiences of knee-related fear after an ACLR and how they perceive this fear to affect them in their sporting and everyday life.

MethodsA qualitative interview study was conducted, using semi-structured interviews. Athletes who were active in contact or pivoting sport before an ACL injury, with the goal of returning to the same sport and who scored highly on fear of new injury at six months post-ACLR, were asked to participate. Ten athletes (six women and four men, aged 17–25 years), were interviewed by an independent researcher, 7–9 months after ACLR. Content analysis employing an abductive approach was used.

ResultsThe analysis resulted in three categories with associated subcategories: 1. The expressions of fear; (i) reason for fear, (ii) changes in fear over time, and (iii) injury situation. 2. Reactions, consequences, and adaptations; (i) reactions, (ii) behavioural adaptation and influence on rehabilitation and daily life, (iii) present consequences, and (iv) consequences for the future. 3. Fear and adaptations related to returning to sports; (i) fear related to returning to sports and, (ii) adaptations in sports and life due to fear. Fear was described in broad and complex ways, with fear of a new injury being expressed as one of several aspects. Various reasons (e.g., seeing others getting injured in the past, previous experience of injury, failed rehabilitation, perceived knee instability) were given to explain the fear, and athletes reacted both physically and mentally to fear. Both positive and negative adaptations to fear were described, in both daily life and sports.

ConclusionThe results contribute to an increased understanding of fear as an essential psychological factor to consider during rehabilitation and leaves the way open for research to investigate how physiotherapists can work to manage fear better among ACLR patients.

In a recent volume of this journal, Schaffran et al. (2019) introduced the Burnout Prevention Questionnaire for Coaches (BPQ-C). Although we recognize the worthwhile efforts of Schaffran et al., we believe that there are several issues associated with this instrument. This commentary aims to expand on why we think the BPQ-C should not currently be used by practitioners and researchers to screen for burnout.

Coach burnout is a state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion resulting from chronic stress and a prolonged sense of overwhelm. Burnout can result in negative consequences for the coach’s personal well-being, reduced satisfaction in the coaching role, and also impact the athletes they work with. High-performance coaching is complex and burnout symptoms are common. In high-performance environments, coaches can be exposed to several risk-factors known for burnout, including an elevated number of unpredictable stressors, a high workload, and significant organizational responsibility combined with work insecurity. In this chapter the story of a successful high-performance coach named Sarah is presented. Sarah’s journey in elite sport is described along with the psychosocial challenges she faces. Based on the case description of Sarah and current research, this chapter explains how burnout can be understood and expressed among coaches and provides examples of evidence-informed strategies for prevention and treatment. In the final part of the chapter, practical recommendations are presented to provide guidance for professionals working in sports environments (e.g., managers, coach developers, educators, sports psychologists) on how to approach and support a coach displaying burnout symptoms.

Athlete wellbeing is a priority topic highlighted by most major international sports organisations. Wellbeing conceptualisations can be sorted under two ancient Greek philosophical traditions of human wellbeing; Hedonia and Eudaimonia. The hedonic tradition focuses on emotional elements and regards happiness and life satisfaction as essential for wellbeing. Eudaimonic traditions emphasise positive functionality and self-realisation in terms of personal growth, actualisation of inner talents and purposefulness in life. In sports studies the label flourishing is increasingly used to capture both hedonic and eudaimonic elements of wellbeing that contribute to an athlete’s overall wellbeing. 

This case report describes the use of behavioral activation when a former Olympic athlete developed depression after career termination. Four sessions were conducted, one session each week, followed by a boost session one month later. In Session 1, the former Olympic athlete displayed mild to moderate depression with anxiety and a low quality-of-life (MADRS-S = 21; GAD-7 = 17; BBQ = 44). By Session 3, the Olympic athlete no longer met the diagnostic criteria for clinical depression or anxiety (MADRS-S = 2; GAD-7 = 7) and quality-of-life was improved (BBQ = 60). Follow-up assessments one year post-treatment confirmed that the former Olympic athlete continued to improve (MADRS-S = 0; GAD-7 = 0; BBQ = 96). This case report discusses the benefits of proactive support to elite athletes and the use of established clinical psychological treatments, for example behavioral activation, when athletes develop health-related conditions.  

Elitidrottares psykiska hälsa och välbefinnande har fått en explosionsartad uppmärksamhet inom idrottsforskningen under senare år Frågorna fick också stort medialt utrymme under de Olympiska spelen (OS) i Tokyo 2020. Den amerikanska gymnastikstjärnan Simone Biles kom till Tokyo 2020 med ett stort antal världsmästerskaps och olympiska medaljer i ryggsäcken och förväntades erövra nya OS-medaljer. Under massiv uppmärksamhet från media avbröt hon kvinnornas lagfinal och ställde in individuella finaler. Genom sitt agerande skickade hon ett viktigt budskap till idrottsvärlden: Elitidrottare är inte bara idrottare utan också människor vars fysiska och mentala hälsa behöver prioriteras även om det pågår ett OS. 

This study examined the prevalence of non-accidental violence, focusing on experienced harassment and abuse (HA), and mental health among current and retired Swedish competitive cheerleaders. An online survey was distributed to current and retired athletes in the Swedish cheerleading federation. The survey assessed perceived coach–athlete relationship, sport psychological safety, resilience, mental health, and experienced HA within the cheerleading environment. A total of 284 athletes (men = 5; women = 278; gender not disclosed = 1; current athletes = 211; retired athletes = 73) completed the survey. Psychological abuse was the most frequently reported HA form (current athletes = 21.6%; retired athletes = 53.5%), followed by neglect (current athletes = 5.4%; retired athletes: 26.8%) and physical abuse (current athletes = 3.9%; retired athletes = 12.7%). A high-quality coach–athlete relationship was identified as a protective factor for HA. Additionally, 33.1% and 8.9% of participants displayed scores indicating anxiety and depression caseness, while 63.8% reported a high level of wellbeing. Anxiety/depression scores above clinical cut-off were linked to injury episodes and a high level of wellbeing to a mentally healthy environment. Resilience was found to protect mental health overall. The high occurrence of reported psychological abuse and indications of anxiety/depression related to injury episodes suggest a need of attention towards prevention and athlete protection strategies in cheerleading environments.

Eitidrottares mentala hälsa och pres-tation är ofta sammanflätade vilketsynliggjordes under covid-19-pande-min. I mars 2020 tog den InternationellaOlympiska Kommittén (IOK) det historiskabeslutet att skjuta fram Tokyo 2020 till senastsommaren 2021. Elitidrotten, i likhet medsamhället i övrigt, blev överrumplade av deomfattande konsekvenser pandemin fick ochhur långdragen pandemin skulle komma attbli. Initialt saknades också erfarenhet ochforskning om hur en pandemi i kombinationmed ett framflyttat OS kunde hanteras. Situationen skapade en extra stress utöver de nor-mala utmaningar elitidrottare vanligtvismöter inför ett OS och fick stor påverkan påalla involverade, inklusive elitidrottsorganisationer världen över.

This chapter focuses on the benefits of stimulating well-being and quality of life (QOL) among athletes as a natural part of sustainable sport participation. Well-being promotion involves proactive support to help athletes develop psychosocial resources to stay functional in the sport environment and life. The historical development of well-being and QOL as a research field in sport psychology is presented. Moreover, scientific definitions, frameworks, and models commonly used in contemporary well-being or QOL research are reviewed together with examples of studies performed with elite athletes. In the final section of the chapter, future research directions and applied implications are discussed and a summarizing model is presented to stimulate future studies and applied work on well-being and QOL in sport.

This paper summarizes the topic of well-being as it applies to competitive athletes, with a particular focus on definitional and conceptual issues. Established definitions within research on human happiness and flourishing based on the hedonic and eudaimonic perspectives are contrasted against definitions applied within sport psychology. The majority of the reviewed sport psychology studies either failed to define well-being or used a variety of labels to describe the construct (e.g., subjective well-being, psychological well-being, mental well-being). A large number of assessments have been used to assess well-being among athletes, but most were applied with only a weak theoretical rationale and did not distinguish between well-being at the global and sport levels. It is concluded that well-being studies within sport psychology have been hampered by conceptual ambiguity, which makes it difficult to compare results across studies and generalize findings in order to develop a sound theoretical base of knowledge. Future research needs to more explicitly define the conceptual framework of well-being and the level (global or context-specific) on which the construct is investigated. Toward this goal, an integrated model is presented to provide a conceptual well-being structure in sport studies, and future directions for research are discussed.

The objective of this article is to discuss: (a) the various theoretical perspectives on mental health and mental health disorders adopted in sport psychology, and (b) how the adoption of these various theoretical perspectives in studies might impact upon the interpretations and conclusions in research about the mental health of participants in elite sports. Well-being as a target construct, holistic models, the single continuum or stage models and Keyes’ dual-continuum model of mental health are described, together with a sports psychiatric view of mental health. The strengths and limitations of various mental health perspectives are discussed. We conclude that mental health is a complex  construct and that the sport psychology literature, much like the clinical psychology literature, has struggled to reach a consensus regarding a definition or a feasible approach to investigating mental health. For the researcher, it becomes important to make explicit the underlying theoretical perspective adopted and the operationalization upon which conclusions about elite athletes’ mental health are based so that an increased knowledge base with high scientific credibility can be established and consolidated over time. 

ObjectivesThis study described differences in lifestyle factors (sleeping problems/fatigue, pressure/activation), perceived coach autonomy support and indicators of mental health (well-being and poor general mental health) across various age groups (children & LE;12 years, youths 13-15 years, junior to senior & GE;16 years) and sports (basketball and gymnastics). Second, the relationships between lifestyle factors and mental health indicators were explored, hypothesising that the relationships would be mediated by perceived coach autonomy support.MethodsA cross-sectional study design was implemented by using an online survey which assessed lifestyle and environmental factors as well as mental health indicators. Participants were recruited through sports clubs in basketball and gymnastics. A total of 209 athletes (77 basketball players and 132 gymnasts) in the age range of 10-22 (median=13) years volunteered to complete the survey.ResultsSeparate two-way analyses of variance showed significant main effects for age group on sleeping problems/fatigue, sleep quantity, pressure/activation, well-being and poor general mental health, with higher scores reported for older age groups of athletes. Path analysis displayed sleeping problems/fatigue and pressure/activation to significantly affect decreased well-being and poor general mental health; however, the relationships were not mediated by perceived coach autonomy support.ConclusionLifestyle factors play a prominent role in mental health outcomes. Researchers studying athlete mental health should consider both general lifestyle and sports-related factors, considering developmental phases in the young athletes sporting context and overall life.

Background Body dissatisfaction is known as a robust predictor for eating pathology. Empirical knowledge about specific psychological mechanisms, beyond sports type, that can maintain or diminish female and male athletes’ body satisfaction is still sparse and research lack consistency. Prevention can decrease risk factors for eating pathology and protect athletes’ appreciation for the body and its functionality for continued and healthy sports participation.

Objective To explore the relationships between age, gender, type of sport, perfectionistic self-presentation, and motivation on body satisfaction among young athletes in one lean sport (gymnastics) and one non-lean sport (basketball). Hypotheses: Age, gender, and sport type are related to body satisfaction. A high autonomous motivation is positively related to body satisfaction while perfectionistic self-presentation displays a negative relationship.

Design Cross-sectional.

Setting Recreational to national elite level.

Participants A total of 209 athletes (basketball players n=77; gymnasts n=132; age range: 10–22) were recruited and 200 (females: n=157; males: n=43) were included in the analyses after data screening.

Assessment of Risk Factors Questionnaires were completed electronically and assessed demographic information (e.g., age, self-assigned gender), motivation (Behavioral Regulation in Sport Questionnaire), perfectionistic self-presentation (Perfectionistic Self-Presentation Scale – Junior Form) and body satisfaction (Body Appreciation Scale-2).

Main Outcome Measurements Body satisfaction (dependent variable).

Results Stepwise multiple regressions with bootstrapping showed age, self-assigned gender, and perfectionistic self-presentation (non-display of imperfection) to significantly predict body satisfaction (p<.05). Path analysis showed a significant relationship between age and body satisfaction (standardized coefficient: -.23) which was partially mediated by non-display of imperfection (p<.05). A moderated mediation analysis showed that this relationship was not moderated by gender.

Conclusions Body satisfaction prevention should target perfectionistic self-presentation tendencies among female and male athletes. Further research is warranted to investigate if non-display of imperfection is a prominent perfectionistic self-presentation facet among athletes across gender, sports and competition levels.

Contemporary research reports several interrelated risk-factors for athlete mental health within elite sports-systems (Purcell et al., 2019). Risk-factors include, for example,organizational stressors, stigma related to mental health problems, normalization of unhealthy behaviors, injuries, career dissatisfaction, harassment and abuse, and toxic sports leadership or other dysfunctional relationships (e.g., Mountjoy et al., 2016;Reardon et al., 2019; Kuettel and Larsen, 2020). Increased commercialization and professionalization, together with stakeholders and media, place further demands and obligations on athletes (Timpka et al., 2008). Most sport-specific risk factors for mental health in elite sports environments are known to be modifiable, and the collection of studies published in recent years pointsto the need for researchers to study support systems for mental health promotion and prevention. Such efforts should focus on proactive support increasing athlete wellbeing and resiliency in response to both expected and naturally occurring stressors in the environment and support the development of targeted prevention and treatments when mental wellbeing or mental disorders are suspected (e.g., Purcell et al., 2019; Lundqvist et al., 2022). This Research Topic includes an important collection of articles spanning authors from several continents with contributions targeting mental health from a variety of conceptual and theoretical perspectives. Several articles have a direct application for researchers and practitioners working with mental health support in various elite athlete populations and cultures.

The youth-to-first team phase presents a number of challenges in the careers of modern football players with stagnation, inconsistent performance and dropout being reported. The aim of this study was to investigate the perception of staff involved in professional academy football clubs around the globe, with a particular focus on youth and first team transition demands, resources as well as transitions barriers and coping among male academy football players. Participants from 29 male youth academies distributed across 29 countries took part in the survey. Our main findings suggested training and match intensity reported as being greater at the senior-level and also pressure from parents. The majority of respondents indicated their clubs having long-term strategy for player development and specific roles supporting successful player transitions. Exposure to different playing styles was deemed important to prepare players for the first team. Likewise, having the academy and the first team training on the same site was perceived to ease the transition, with the majority of respondents indicating that players are able to cope with the pressure of first team training and games. Perceptions on whether staff do not have the skills/resources to prepare players for the changes in environment and culture when players move from youth-to-senior level were unclear. Collectively, our study extends previous transition research on youth football academies suggesting the importance of a club-based playing philosophy to prepare players for the first team demands and challenges.

The primary aim with this chapter is to share personal and practical experiences, as well as theoretical considerations, of providing psychological support to injured elite athletes. Fundamental principles and approaches, based on evidence-based practice from clinical psychology as well as more traditional sport psychology research, found to be functional and helpful in the work of injured athletes are discussed.

The Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) is one of the most frequently used instruments when assessing competitive state anxiety in sport psychology research. However, doubts have been expressed about the factorial validity of both the English and the Greek versions of the scale. Hence, a revised version of the inventory (CSAI-2R) has recently been suggested to be more psychometrically sound (Cox et al., 2003). In the present study, the aim was to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Swedish version of the CSAI-2 using confirmatory factor analyses. A total of 969 athletes (571 men and 398 women) competing in 26 different sports completed the Swedish version of the CSAI-2. Three different factor structures were evaluated: the original three-factor model (with cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and self-confidence), a two-factor model in which self-confidence was excluded, and a three-factor model containing 17 items (CSAI-2R). The results revealed that only the 17-item model displayed an acceptable fit to the data. Although some doubts remain about the amount of variance that can be attributed to error variance in the subscales, the results suggest that it is better to use the CSAI-2R rather than the original CSAI-2.

The WHO1 defines mental health as ‘a state of well-being in which an individual realises his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully and is able to make a contribution to his or her community’ (p. 12). According to this definition, mental health is more than a lack of symptoms of mental ill-being or disorders. Variations in mood and perception of symptoms, also with aversive valence, may occur during regular participation in competitive sports. This editorial discusses the importance of acknowledging nuances in studies of mental health and psychiatric disorders in sports medicine and calls for a deepened understanding of ‘mental health’ and how various mental health symptoms and disorders are reported.

Psykiskt mående och prestation går hand i hand och för en långsiktig och hållbar elitidrottskarriär är båda delarna centrala och ofta sammanflätade. Det finns idag ett ökat intresse från idrotten att fördjupa sin kunskap kring psykisk hälsa, samtidigt tycker många att det är ett svårt ämne att få grepp om. I denna artikel försöker vi sammanfatta viktig grundläggande kunskap inom området, för dig som jobbar med eller kommer i kontakt med elitidrottare.

The purpose of this study was to psychometrically evaluate the Emotional Recovery Questionnaire (EmRecQ) and to describe athletes’ individual response patterns in five repeated assessments using the EmRecQ. Three samples were used. Samples 1 and 2 consisted of 192 and 379 (Mean age 16.4 years, SD = 0.7 and Mean age: 17.0 years, SD = 1.1) elite athletes from different sports. The third sample consisted of 20 (Mean age: 21.3, SD = 19.0) female elite basketball players. The EmRecQ is a 22-item questionnaire that assesses Happiness, Security, Harmony, Love, and Vitality. Results showed acceptable weighted omega reliability and construct reliability. Confirmatory factor analyses supported the a priori specified five-factor correlated model. Case profiles of repeated assessments revealed individual response patterns of the separate EmRecQ subscales that corresponded well with rated training load and total quality of recovery. The findings provide support for the EmRecQ’s psychometric properties and applied usefulness.

The objective was to examine the differences in anxiety ratings of elite and sub‐elite athletes when the relationship between intensity and direction scores of anxiety ratings is considered in analyses. Participants were 31 junior elite (Mean age: 17.7, SD=1.1) and 53 sub‐elite (Mean age: 17.5, SD=1.1) cross country skiers and swimmers who completed the direction modified CSAI‐2R before important competitions. Results showed that elite athletes rated a higher percent of items as facilitative to their performance whereas sub‐elite athletes rated a higher percent of items as debilitative. No significant differences between the elite and sub‐elite samples were displayed regarding rated direction scores of cognitive or somatic anxiety at moderate to high‐intensity levels. A significant difference in facilitative anxiety ratings was displayed at a low anxiety intensity level (Z=−2.20, P<0.05). Outcome performance data showed no consistent congruence with athletes' anxiety direction ratings. The findings suggest that facilitative direction scores are a consequence of low anxiety intensity, possibly combined with high self‐confidence levels. Directional anxiety researchers analyzing separate total scores of intensity and direction respectively, which is the traditional approach, may draw incorrect conclusions about the importance of facilitative ratings of anxiety symptoms.

Objectives: To explore the relationships between age, gender, type of sport, perfectionistic self-presentation and motivation on body satisfaction among young athletes in one aesthetic sport (gymnastics) and one non-aesthetic sport (basketball). The study hypothesise that (1) age, gender, and type of sport (aesthetic or non-aesthetic) will predict body satisfaction scores, (2) autonomous motivation will positively relate to body satisfaction, and (3) perfectionistic self-presentation will negatively relate to body satisfaction.

Design: Cross-sectional. 

Method: 209 athletes (132 gymnasts and 77 basketball players) aged 10-22 (median=13 years) were recruited. After data screening, 200 athletes were included in analyses (females: n=155; males: n=45). Participants completed an online survey which assessed demographic information, athlete motivation (Behavioral Regulation in Sport Questionnaire), perfectionistic self-presentation (Perfectionistic Self-Presentation Scale – Junior Form) and body satisfaction (Body Appreciation Scale-2). 

Results: Hierarchical multiple regression showed age, self-assigned gender, and two facets of perfectionism (perfectionistic self-presentation and non-disclosure of imperfection) to predict reported levels of body satisfaction significantly. Subsequently, adding motivational variables did not improve the model. A moderation analysis showed that the relationship between non-disclosure of imperfection and body satisfaction was significantly moderated by gender. 

Conclusions: Two facets of perfectionism were associated with reported body satisfaction. Additionally, the relationship between non-disclosure of imperfection and body satisfaction appears to differ between female and male athletes. Researchers should move beyond sport types and identify factors (e.g., perfectionistic self-presentation) at the individual and environmental level that can protect young athletes’ body satisfaction.

The present study explored Norwegian and Swedish Olympic aspirants perceived challenges for the preparations of Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games (OG) and risk and protective factors for mental health. The focus for this study was the timespan between the declaration of the postponement of Tokyo 2020 and the final months before the Games. A secondary purpose was to explore experiences of both elite athletes affected by lockdown (i.e., Norwegian athletes) and elite athletes not affected by lockdown in their home country (i.e., Swedish athletes). Twelve elite athletes (Norwegian: n = 6; Swedish: n = 6; Women: n = 6; Men: n = 6) with a mean age of 28.25 (SD = 3.60) participated. Semi-structured interviews were conducted between April and June 2021. Seven athletes had qualified and five were still trying to qualify. Eight of the interviewed athletes had previous experiences with OG participation. Template analysis revealed two main themes: (a) challenges and risk-factors for mental health and (b) protective factors. The pandemic exposed athletes to several psychological strains like uncertainty and difficulties with planning and preparations for the OG and personal and social challenges (i.e., worry about physical health and risk of overtraining, social contacts, identity, and life issues). Protective factors included perceived benefits of increased recovery and time for quality training. The athletes used several coping strategies and self-care behaviors (e.g., focus on the controllable, playfulness, putting sports in perspective, daily routines, short-term goals, working or studying for personal development) and they tapped into various internal and external psychosocial resources perceived as protective for mental health, personal growth, resiliency, and adjustment to the pandemic. The holistic perspectives used contribute to an increased understanding of elite sport athletes mental health needs in stressful and unforeseen situations such as a pandemic.