Individual neurons express only one or a few of the many identified neurotransmitters and neuropeptides, but the molecular mechanisms controlling their selection are poorly understood. In the Drosophila ventral nerve cord, the six Tv neurons express the neuropeptide gene FMRFamide. Each Tv neuron resides within a neuronal cell group specified by the LIM-homeodomain gene apterous. We find that the zinc-finger gene squeeze acts in Tv cells to promote their unique axon pathfinding to a peripheral target. There, the BMP ligand Glass bottom boat activates the Wishful thinking receptor, initiating a retrograde BMP signal in the Tv neuron. This signal acts together with apterous and squeeze to activate FMRFamide expression. Reconstituting this "code," by combined BMP activation and apterous/squeeze misexpression, triggers ectopic FMRFamide expression in peptidergic neurons. Thus, an intrinsic transcription factor code integrates with an extrinsic retrograde signal to select a specific neuropeptide identity within peptidergic cells.
The broad range of tissue and cellular diversity of animals is generated to a large extent by the hierarchical deployment of sequence-specific transcription factors and co-factors (collectively referred to as TFs herein) during development. Our understanding of these developmental processes has been facilitated by the recognition that the activities of many TFs can be meaningfully described by a few functional categories that usefully convey a sense for how the TFs function, and also provides a sense for the regulatory organization of the developmental processes in which they participate. Here, we draw on examples from studies in Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila melanogaster, and vertebrates to discuss how the terms spatial selector, temporal selector, tissue/cell type selector, terminal selector and combinatorial code may be usefully applied to categorize the activities of TFs at critical steps of nervous system construction. While we believe that these functional categories are useful for understanding the organizational principles by which TFs direct nervous system construction, we however caution against the assumption that a TFs function can be solely or fully defined by any single functional category. Indeed, most TFs play diverse roles within different functional categories, and their roles can blur the lines we draw between these categories. Regardless, it is our belief that the concepts discussed here are helpful in clarifying the regulatory complexities of nervous system development, and hope they prove useful when interpreting mutant phenotypes, designing future experiments, and programming specific neuronal cell types for use in therapies.
In the Drosophila ventral nerve cord, a small number of neurons express the LIM-homeodomain gene apterous (ap). These ap neurons can be subdivided based upon axon pathfinding and their expression of neuropeptidergic markers. ap, the zinc finger gene squeeze, the bHLH gene dimmed, and the BMP pathway are all required for proper specification of these cells. Here, using several ap neuron terminal differentiation markers, we have resolved how each of these factors contributes to ap neuron diversity. We find that these factors interact genetically and biochemically in subtype-specific combinatorial codes to determine certain defining aspects of ap neuron subtype identity. However, we also find that ap, dimmed, and squeeze additionally act independently of one another to specify certain other defining aspects of ap neuron subtype identity. Therefore, within single neurons, we show that single regulators acting in numerous molecular contexts differentially specify multiple subtype-specific traits. Copyright ©2005 by Elsevier Inc.
In the developing Drosophila central nervous system (CNS), neural progenitor (neuroblast [NB]) selection is gated by lateral inhibition, controlled by Notch signaling and proneural genes. However, proneural mutants still generate many NBs, indicating the existence of additional proneural genes. Moreover, recent studies reveal involvement of key epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) genes in NB selection, but the regulatory interplay between Notch signaling and the EMT machinery is unclear. We find that SoxNeuro (SoxB family) and worniu (Snail family) are integrated with the Notch pathway, and constitute the missing proneural genes. Notch signaling, the proneural, SoxNeuro, and worniu genes regulate key EMT genes to orchestrate the NB selection process. Hence, we uncover an expanded lateral inhibition network for NB selection and demonstrate its link to key players in the EMT machinery. The evolutionary conservation of the genes involved suggests that the Notch-SoxB-Snail-EMT network may control neural progenitor selection in many other systems.
Great progress has been made in identifying transcriptional programs that establish stem cell identity. In contrast, we have limited insight into how these programs are down-graded in a timely manner to halt proliferation and allow for cellular differentiation. Drosophila embryonic neuroblasts undergo such a temporal progression, initially dividing to bud off daughters that divide once (type I), then switching to generating non-dividing daughters (type 0), and finally exiting the cell cycle. We identify six early transcription factors that drive neuroblast and type I daughter proliferation. Early factors are gradually replaced by three late factors, acting to trigger the type I→0 daughter proliferation switch and eventually to stop neuroblasts. Early and late factors regulate each other and four key cell-cycle genes, providing a logical genetic pathway for these transitions. The identification of this extensive driver-stopper temporal program controlling neuroblast lineage progression may have implications for studies in many other systems.less thanbr /greater than (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)
During central nervous system (CNS) development, genetic programs establish neural stem cells and drive both stem and daughter cell proliferation. However, the prominent anterior expansion of the CNS implies anterior-posterior (A-P) modulation of these programs. In Drosophila, a set of neural stem cell factors acts along the entire A-P axis to establish neural stem cells. Brain expansion results from enhanced stem and daughter cell proliferation, promoted by a Polycomb Group (PcG)-amp;gt;Homeobox (Hox) homeotic network. But how does PcG-amp;gt;Hox modulate neural-stem-cell-factor activity along the A-P axis? We find that the PcG-amp;gt;Hox network creates an A-P expression gradient of neural stem cell factors, thereby driving a gradient of proliferation. PcG mutants can be rescued by misexpression of the neural stem cell factors or by mutation of one single Hox gene. Hence, brain expansion results from anterior enhancement of core neural-stem-cell-factor expression, mediated by PcG repression of brain Hox expression.
The Paf1 protein complex (Paf1C) is increasingly recognized as a highly conserved and broadly utilized regulator of a variety of transcriptional processes. These include the promotion of H3K4 and H3K36 trimethylation, H2BK123 ubiquitination, RNA Pol II transcriptional termination, and also RNA-mediated gene silencing. Paf1C contains five canonical protein components, including Paf1 and Ctr9, which are critical for overall complex integrity, as well as Rtf1, Leo1, and Cdc73/Parafibromin(Hrpt2)/Hyrax. In spite of a growing appreciation for the importance of Paf1C from yeast and mammalian studies, there has only been limited work in Drosophila. Here, we provide the first detailed phenotypic study of Ctr9 function in Drosophila. We found that Ctr9 mutants die at late embryogenesis or early larval life, but can be partly rescued by nervous system reexpression of Ctr9. We observed a number of phenotypes in Ctr9 mutants, including increased neuroblast numbers, increased nervous system proliferation, as well as downregulation of many neuropeptide genes. Analysis of cell cycle and regulatory gene expression revealed upregulation of the E2f1 cell cycle factor, as well as changes in Antennapedia and Grainy head expression. We also found reduction of H3K4me3 modification in the embryonic nervous system. Genome-wide transcriptome analysis points to additional downstream genes that may underlie these Ctr9 phenotypes, revealing gene expression changes in Notch pathway target genes, cell cycle genes, and neuropeptide genes. In addition, we find significant effects on the gene expression of metabolic genes. These findings reveal that Ctr9 is an essential gene that is necessary at multiple stages of nervous system development, and provides a starting point for future studies of the Paf1C in Drosophila.
Neural progenitors generate distinct cell types at different stages, but the mechanisms controlling these temporal transitions are poorly understood. In the Drosophila CNS, a cascade of transcription factors, the ‘temporal gene cascade’, has been identified, that acts to alter progenitor competence over time. However, many CNS lineages display broad temporal windows, and it is unclear how broad windows progress into sub-windows that generate unique cell types. We have addressed this issue in an identifiable Drosophila CNS lineage, and find that a broad castor temporal window is sub-divided by two different feed-forward loops, both of which are triggered by castor itself. The first loop acts to specify a unique cell fate, while the second loop suppresses the first loop, thereby allowing for the generation of alternate cell fates. This mechanism of temporal and ‘sub-temporal’ genes acting in opposing feed-forward loops may be used by many stem cell lineages to generate diversity.
During central nervous system (CNS) development, progenitors typically divide asymmetrically, renewing themselves while budding off daughter cells with more limited proliferative potential. Variation in daughter cell proliferation has a profound impact on CNS development and evolution, but the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. We find that Drosophila embryonic neural progenitors (neuroblasts) undergo a programmed daughter proliferation mode switch, from generating daughters that divide once (type I) to generating neurons directly (type 0). This typelgreater than0 switch is triggered by activation of Dacapo (mammalian p21(CIP1)/p27(KIP1)/p57(Kip2)) expression in neuroblasts. In the thoracic region, Dacapo expression is activated by the temporal cascade (castor) and the Hox gene Antennapedia. In addition, castor, Antennapedia, and the late temporal gene grainyhead act combinatorially to control the precise timing of neuroblast cell-cycle exit by repressing Cyclin E and E2f. This reveals a logical principle underlying progenitor and daughter cell proliferation control in the Drosophila CNS.
Neuronal specification is often seen as a multistep process: earlier regulators confer broad neuronal identity and are followed by combinatorial codes specifying neuronal properties unique to specific subtypes. However, it is still unclear whether early regulators are re-deployed in subtype-specific combinatorial codes, and whether early patterning events act to restrict the developmental potential of postmitotic cells. Here, we use the differential peptidergic fate of two lineage-related peptidergic neurons in the Drosophila ventral nerve cord to show how, in a feedforward mechanism, earlier determinants become critical players in later combinatorial codes. Amongst the progeny of neuroblast 5-6 are two peptidergic neurons: one expresses FMRFamide and the other one expresses Nplp1 and the dopamine receptor DopR. We show the HLH gene collier functions at three different levels to progressively restrict neuronal identity in the 5-6 lineage. At the final step, collier is the critical combinatorial factor that differentiates two partially overlapping combinatorial codes that define FMRFamide versus Nplp1/DopR identity. Misexpression experiments reveal that both codes can activate neuropeptide gene expression in vast numbers of neurons. Despite their partially overlapping composition, we find that the codes are remarkably specific, with each code activating only the proper neuropeptide gene. These results indicate that a limited number of regulators may constitute a potent combinatorial code that dictates unique neuronal cell fate, and that such codes show a surprising disregard for many global instructive cues.
Identification of the genetic mechanisms underlying the specification of large numbers of different neuronal cell fates from limited numbers of progenitor cells is at the forefront of developmental neurobiology. In Drosophila, the identities of the different neuronal progenitor cells, the neuroblasts, are specified by a combination of spatial cues. These cues are integrated with temporal competence transitions within each neuroblast to give rise to a specific repertoire of cell types within each lineage. However, the nature of this integration is poorly understood. To begin addressing this issue, we analyze the specification of a small set of peptidergic cells: the abdominal leucokinergic neurons. We identify the progenitors of these neurons, the temporal window in which they are specified and the influence of the Notch signaling pathway on their specification. We also show that the products of the genes klumpfuss, nab and castor play important roles in their specification via a genetic cascade.
The genetic mechanisms underlying the specification of a large number of different cell fates starting from a limited group of progenitor cells are a major focus of investigations of central nervous system development. In Drosophila the identities of the different neuronal progenitor cells, the neuroblasts, are specified by a combination of spatial and temporal factors. But how each neuroblast gives rise to a specific repertoire of cell types via a precise programme is poorly understood. In this report we analyse the specification of a small set of peptidergic cells, the abdominal leucokinergic neurons. We identify the progenitors of these neurons, the temporal window in which they are specified, and the influence of the Notch signalling pathway on their specification. We also show that the products of the genes klumfuss, nab and castor play important roles in their specification via a genetic cascade.
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Drosophila embryonic neuroblasts generate different cell types at different time points. This is controlled by a temporal cascade of Hb -greater than Kr -greater than Pdm -greater than Cas -greater than Grh, which acts to dictate distinct competence windows sequentially. In addition, Seven up (Svp), a member of the nuclear hormone receptor family, acts early in the temporal cascade, to ensure the transition from Hb to Kr, and has been referred to as a switching factor. However, Svp is also expressed in a second wave within the developing CNS, but here, the possible role of Svp has not been previously addressed. In a genetic screen for mutants affecting the last-born cell in the embryonic NB5-6T lineage, the Ap4/FMRFamide neuron, we have isolated a novel allele of svp. Expression analysis shows that Svp is expressed in two distinct pulses in NB5-6T, and mutant analysis reveals that svp plays two distinct roles. In the first pulse, svp acts to ensure proper downregulation of Hb. In the second pulse, which occurs in a Cas/Grh double-positive window, svp acts to ensure proper sub-division of this window. These studies show that a temporal factor may play dual roles, acting at two different stages during the development of one neural lineage.
Curcumin has been proposed to facilitate clearance of toxic amyloid formed by the Aβ peptide. To further address this notion, different concentrations of curcumin were tried for its effects in various Drosophila Alzheimer’s disease (AD) models. This study entailed five different Drosophila AD models (four Aβ expressing lines, and one tau expressing line), expressing the AD associated proteins using the Gal4/UAS system. These were assayed for several aspects of neurological impairment, including survival, climbing behavior, as well as locomotor activity. In addition, amyloid deposition was assessed by histological analysis. Curcumin treatment substantially prolonged the lifespan and improved climbing and locomotor activity for flies with severe disease geneotypes (Aβ1-42 E22G and double expressing Aβ1-42). In comparison, curcumin feeding of control flies resulted in a concentration-dependent shortened lifespan, whereas no such toxic side effects were found for AD genotypes with a mild phenotype (single expressors of Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42). All flies expressing Aβ and tau displayed a higher total locomotor activity, and a continuation of the activity over a larger number of hours upon curcumin treatment. Unexpectedly, no change in tissue amyloid deposition upon curcumin treatment was observed. In vitro fibrillation of Aβ1-42, followed by Western blot and transmission electron microscopy in the presence and absence of curcumin, displayed enhanced fibrillation into large aggregates and decreased population of oligomers in curcumin samples. The decrease in oligomer formation by curcumin may explain why it increases the lifespan and activity without removing of the amyloid deposits seen in tissues. We also suggest that Aβ, at least in the context of Drosophila, functions as a chemical detoxifier sequestering curcumin and thereby mitigating its toxicity.
Drosophila melanogaster is emerging as an important model system for neurodegenerative disease research. In this protocol, we describe an efficient method for imaging amyloid deposits in the Drosophila brain, by the use of a luminescent-conjugated oligothiophene (lco), p-Ftaa polymer probe. We also demonstrate the feasibility of co-staining with antibodies and compare the lco staining with standard amyloid-specific probes. the lco protocol enables high-resolution imaging of several different protein aggregates, such as aβ1-42, aβ1-42e22G, transthyretin V30M and human tau, in the Drosophila brain. aβ and tau aggregates could also be distinguished from each other because of distinct lco emission spectra. Furthermore, this protocol enables threedimensional brain mapping of amyloid distribution in whole-mount Drosophila brains. the use of p-Ftaa combined with other probes, antibodies and/or dyes will aid the rapid characterization of various amyloid deposits in the rapidly growing number of Drosophila models of neurodegenerative diseases.
Background/Aims: Transthyretin (TTR) is a prevalent plasma and cerebrospinal fluid protein associated with sporadic and heritable amyloidosis. TTR amyloidosis is linked to a vast number of mutations with varying phenotype, tissue distribution and age of onset. The most prevalent mutation associated with familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy (FAP) is the V30M mutation. Studies of transgenic mouse models of TTR V30M FAP have been hampered by variable phenotype, low disease penetrance, and slow onset. Methods/Results: To model TTR-associated amyloid disease in the Drosophila model system, transgenic Drosophila were generated, expressing wild-type (wt) TTR or TTR V30M, associated with sporadic senile systemic amyloidosis (SSA) and inherited FAP, respectively. We found that expression of FAP-associated TTR V30M mutant in the nervous system resulted in reduced lifespan and in reduced climbing ability indicating neurological impairment, whereas expression of TTR wt showed a milder phenotype. Congo red staining of the Drosophila brain shows positive amyloid binding in the aged TTR V30M flies. Extensive brain vacuole formation was evident for the aged TTR V30M flies, whereas a milder phenotype was shown by the TTR wt flies. In addition, expression of TTR V30M in the eye leads to tissue damage, including rough eye, morphological changes and fibrous deposition. Conclusion: Our results suggest that Drosophila is a promising complementary system for studies of TTR-associated amyloid diseases.
The expression of neuropeptides is often extremely restricted in the nervous system, making them powerful markers for addressing cell specification . In the developing Drosophila ventral nerve cord, only six cells, the Ap4 neurons, of some 10,000 neurons, express the neuropeptide FMRFamide (FMRFa). Each Ap4/FMRFa neuron is the last-born cell generated by an identifiable and well-studied progenitor cell, neuroblast 5-6 (NB5-6T). The restricted expression of FMRFa and the wealth of information regarding its gene regulation and Ap4 neuron specification makes FMRFa a valuable readout for addressing many aspects of neural development, i.e., spatial and temporal patterning cues, cell cycle control, cell specification, axon transport, and retrograde signaling. To this end, we have conducted a forward genetic screen utilizing an Ap4-specific FMRFa-eGFP transgenic reporter as our readout. A total of 9781 EMS-mutated chromosomes were screened for perturbations in FMRFa-eGFP expression, and 611 mutants were identified. Seventy-nine of the strongest mutants were mapped down to the affected gene by deficiency mapping or whole-genome sequencing. We isolated novel alleles for previously known FMRFa regulators, confirming the validity of the screen. In addition, we identified novel essential genes, including several with previously undefined functions in neural development. Our identification of genes affecting most major steps required for successful terminal differentiation of Ap4 neurons provides a comprehensive view of the genetic flow controlling the generation of highly unique neuronal cell types in the developing nervous system.
The Notch pathway controls proliferation during development and in adulthood, and is frequently affected in many disorders. However, the genetic sensitivity and multi-layered transcriptional properties of the Notch pathway has made its molecular decoding challenging. Here, we address the complexity of Notch signaling with respect to proliferation, using the developing Drosophila CNS as model. We find that a Notch/Su(H)/E(spl)-HLH cascade specifically controls daughter, but not progenitor proliferation. Additionally, we find that different E(spl)-HLH genes are required in different neuroblast lineages. The Notch/Su(H)/E(spl)-HLH cascade alters daughter proliferation by regulating four key cell cycle factors: Cyclin E, String/Cdc25, E2f and Dacapo (mammalian p21(CIP1)/p27(KIP1)/p57(Kip2)). ChIP and DamID analysis of Su(H) and E(spl)-HLH indicates direct transcriptional regulation of the cell cycle genes, and of the Notch pathway itself. These results point to a multi-level signaling model and may help shed light on the dichotomous proliferative role of Notch signaling in many other systems.
During cell cycle progression, the activity of the CycE-Cdk2 complex gates S-phase entry. CycE-Cdk2 is inhibited by CDK inhibitors (CKIs) of the Cip/Kip family, which include the human p21(Cip)(1) and Drosophila Dacapo (Dap) proteins. Both the CycE and Cip/Kip family proteins are under elaborate control via protein degradation, mediated by the Cullin-RING ligase (CRL) family of ubiquitin ligase complexes. The CRL complex SCFFoxw7/Ago targets phosphorylated CycE, whereas p21(Cip)(1) and Dap are targeted by the CRLCdf2 complex, binding to the PIP degron. The role of CRL-mediated degradation of CycE and Cip/Kip proteins during CNS development is not well understood. Here, we analyse the role of ago (Fbxw7)-mediated CycE degradation, and of Dap and p21(Cip)(1) degradation during Drosophila CNS development. We find that ago mutants display over-proliferation, accompanied by elevated CycE expression levels. By contrast, expression of PIP degron mutant Dap and p21(Cip)(1) transgenes inhibit proliferation. However, surprisingly, this is also accompanied by elevated CycE levels. Hence, ago mutation and PIP degron Cip/Kip transgenic expression trigger opposite effects on proliferation, but similar effects on CycE levels.
The pathology of Alzheimers disease (AD) is characterized by the presence of extracellular deposits of misfolded and aggregated amyloid-beta (A beta) peptide and intraneuronal accumulation of tangles comprised of hyperphosphorylated Tau protein. For several years, the natural compound curcumin has been proposed to be a candidate for enhanced clearance of toxic A beta amyloid. In this study we have studied the potency of feeding curcumin as a drug candidate to alleviate A beta toxicity in transgenic Drosophila. The longevity as well as the locomotor activity of five different AD model genotypes, measured relative to a control line, showed up to 75% improved lifespan and activity for curcumin fed flies. In contrast to the majority of studies of curcumin effects on amyloid we did not observe any decrease in the amount of A beta deposition following curcumin treatment. Conformation-dependent spectra from p-FTAA, a luminescent conjugated oligothiophene bound to A beta deposits in different Drosophila genotypes over time, indicated accelerated pre-fibrillar to fibril conversion of A beta(1-42) in curcumin treated flies. This finding was supported by in vitro fibrillation assays of recombinant A beta(1-42). Our study shows that curcumin promotes amyloid fibril conversion by reducing the pre-fibrillar/oligomeric species of A beta, resulting in a reduced neurotoxicity in Drosophila.
In both vertebrates and invertebrates, members of the LIM-homeodomain (LIM-HD) family of transcription factors act in combinatorial codes to specify motoneuron subclass identities. In the developing Drosophila embryo, the LIM-HD factors Islet (Tailup) and Lim3, specify the set of motoneuron subclasses that innervate ventral muscle targets. However, as several subclasses express both Islet and Lim3, this combinatorial code alone cannot explain how these motoneuron groups are further differentiated. To identify additional factors that may act to refine this LIM-HD code, we have analyzed the expression of POU genes in the Drosophila embryonic nerve cord. We find that the class III POU protein, Drifter (Ventral veinless), is co-expressed with Islet and Lim3 specifically in the ISNb motoneuron subclass. Loss-of-function and misexpression studies demonstrate that the LIM-HD combinatorial code requires Drifter to confer target specificity between the ISNb and TN motoneuron subclasses. To begin to elucidate molecules downstream of the LIM-HD code, we examined the involvement of the Beaten path (Beat) family of immunoglobulin-containing cell-adhesion molecules. We find that beat Ic genetically interacts with islet and Lim3 in the TN motoneuron subclass and can also rescue the TN fasciculation defects observed in islet and Lim3 mutants. These results suggest that in the TN motoneuron context, Islet and Lim3 may specify axon target selection through the actions of IgSF call-adhesion molecules.
Tau protein is involved in numerous human neurodegenerative diseases, and Tau hyper-phosphorylation has been linked to Tau aggregation and toxicity. Previous studies have addressed toxicity and phospho-biology of human Tau (hTau) in Drosophila melanogaster. However, hTau transgenes have most often been randomly inserted in the genome, thus making it difficult to compare between different hTau isoforms and phospho-mutants. In addition, many studies have expressed hTau also in mitotic cells, causing nonphysiological toxic effects. Here, we overcome these confounds by integrating UAS-hTau isoform transgenes into specific genomic loci, and express hTau post-mitotically in the Drosophila nervous system. Lifespan and locomotor analyses show that all six of the hTau isoforms elicit similar toxicity in flies, although hTau(2N3R) showed somewhat elevated toxicity. To determine if Tau phosphorylation is responsible for toxicity, we analyzed the effects of co-expressing hTau isoforms together with Tau-kinases, focusing on TTBK1, TTBK2 and MARK1. We observed toxicity when expressing each of the three kinases alone, or in combination. Kinase toxicity was enhanced by hTau co-expression, with strongest co-toxicity for TTBK1. Mutagenesis and phosphorylation analysis indicates that hTau-MARK1 combinatorial toxicity may be due to direct phosphorylation of hTau, while hTau-TTBK1/2 combinatorial toxicity may result from independent toxicity mechanisms.
Genetic, biochemical and histological studies have identified a number of different proteins as key drivers of human neurodegenerative diseases. Although different proteins are typically involved in different diseases, there is also considerable overlap. Addressing disease protein dysfunction in an in vivo neuronal context is often time consuming and requires labor-intensive analysis of transgenic models. To facilitate the rapid, cellular analysis of disease protein dysfunction, we have developed a fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) adult leg neuron assay. We tested the robustness of 41 transgenic fluorescent reporters and identified a number that were readily detected in the legs and could report on different cellular events. To test these reporters, we expressed a number of human proteins involved in neurodegenerative disease, in both their mutated and wild-type versions, to address the effects on reporter expression and localization. We observed strikingly different effects of the different disease proteins upon the various reporters with, for example, A beta(1-42) being highly neurotoxic, tau, parkin and HTT128Q affecting mitochondrial distribution, integrity or both, and A beta(1-42), tau, HTT128Q and ATX1(82Q) affecting the F-actin network. This study provides proof of concept for using the Drosophila adult leg for inexpensive and rapid analysis of cellular effects of neurodegenerative disease proteins in mature neurons.
Specification of the myriad of unique neuronal subtypes found in the nervous system depends upon spatiotemporal cues and terminal selector gene cascades, often acting in sequential combinatorial codes to determine final cell fate. However, a specific neuronal cell subtype can often be generated in different parts of the nervous system and at different stages, indicating that different spatiotemporal cues can converge on the same terminal selectors to thereby generate a similar cell fate. However, the regulatory mechanisms underlying such convergence are poorly understood. The Nplp1 neuropeptide neurons in the Drosophila ventral nerve cord can be subdivided into the thoracic-ventral Tv1 neurons and the dorsal-medial dAp neurons. The activation of Nplp1 in Tv1 and dAp neurons depends upon the same terminal selector cascade: colamp;gt;ap/eyaamp;gt;dimmamp;gt;Nplp1. However, Tv1 and dAp neurons are generated by different neural progenitors (neuroblasts) with different spatiotemporal appearance. Here, we find that the same terminal selector cascade is triggered by Kr/pdmamp;gt;grn in dAp neurons, but by Antp/hth/exd/lbe/cas in Tv1 neurons. Hence, two different spatiotemporal combinations can funnel into a common downstream terminal selector cascade to determine a highly related cell fate.
Barh1/h2 genes encode two related homeobox transcription factors (B-H1 and B-H2) previously shown to play essential roles in the formation and specification of the distal leg segments and in retinal neurogenesis. Here we describe the restricted expression pattern of the B-H1/-H2 homeoprotein within the embryonic ventral nerve cord of Drosophila. We show that B-H1/-H2 are specifically expressed in a subset of dopaminergic neurons, namely the unpaired ventral midline dopaminergic neuron, and in a subpopulation of laterally projecting motoneurons, i.e. the five motoneurons forming the segmental nerve a (SNa) branch. Using the GAL4-UAS system we show that B-H1/-H2Gal4 in combination with a membrane-targeted enhanced green fluorescent protein reporter line provides a powerful genetic tool reproducibly to label SNa motoneuron projections and terminals at the periphery, and their dendritic tree in the ventral nerve cord. Thus, the highly restricted expression pattern of the B-H1/-H2 homeoproteins and notably the related Gal4 driver represent powerful genetic tools to identify and study genes that control axon guidance, synaptogenesis or dendritic arborization within a small subpopulation of motoneurons identifiable from embryogenesis to late larval stages. © The Authors (2006).
During nervous system development, combinatorial codes of regulators act to specify different neuronal subclasses. However, within any given subclass, there exists a further refinement, apparent in Drosophila and C. elegans at single-cell resolution. The mechanisms that act to specify final and unique neuronal cell fates are still unclear. In the Drosophila embryo, one well-studied motoneuron subclass, the intersegmental motor nerve (ISN), consists of seven unique motoneurons. Specification of the ISN subclass is dependent upon both even-skipped (eve) and the zfh1 zinc-finger homeobox gene. We find that ISN motoneurons also express the GATA transcription factor Grain, and grn mutants display motor axon pathfinding defects. Although these three regulators are expressed by all ISN motoneurons, these genes act in an eve?grn?zfh1 genetic cascade unique to one of the ISN motoneurons, the aCC. Our results demonstrate that the specification of a unique neuron, within a given subclass, can be governed by a unique regulatory cascade of subclass determinants.
Neural progenitors typically divide asymmetrically to renew themselves, while producing daughters with more limited potential. In the Drosophila embryonic ventral nerve cord, neuroblasts initially produce daughters that divide once to generate two neurons/glia (type I proliferation mode). Subsequently, many neuroblasts switch to generating daughters that differentiate directly (type 0). This programmed type I>0 switch is controlled by Notch signaling, triggered at a distinct point of lineage progression in each neuroblast. However, how Notch signaling onset is gated was unclear. We recently identified Sequoia (Seq), a C2H2 zinc-finger transcription factor with homology to Drosophila Tramtrack (Ttk) and the positive regulatory domain (PRDM) family, as important for lineage progression. Here, we find that seq mutants fail to execute the type I>0 daughter proliferation switch and also display increased neuroblast proliferation. Genetic interaction studies reveal that seq interacts with the Notch pathway, and seq furthermore affects expression of a Notch pathway reporter. These findings suggest that seq may act as a context-dependent regulator of Notch signaling, and underscore the growing connection between Seq, Ttk, the PRDM family and Notch signaling.
Over the past several years, the toxic mechanism of proliferating misfolded proteins (MPs) as initiators and drivers of neurodegeneration has gained momentum. Nonetheless, the notion of selective vulnerability of specific cell types in neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) is largely uncharted territory. NDs show vast variations in disease onset and clinical phenotype depending on culprit MP and cell type involved. Many researchers in the field aim to target MP spreading to mitigate neurodegeneration. But there are outstanding questions:
How can NDs stay dormant for decades before presenting clinical symptoms?How can certain patients carry large loads of MPs without showing symptoms?
Amyloid fibrils and oligomers are structurally heterogeneous showing conformational and ultrastructural polymorphism. This poses a challenge both for diagnostics and for therapeutic interventions. This polymorphism likely contributes to variable disease progression because protein structure determines function. Furthermore, various cell types show different sensitivity towards distinct MPs and fibril polymorphs. Unravelling how CNS support cells, glia, versus neurons handle MPs, especially Aβ amyloid linked to Alzheimer’s disease has been hampered by the fact that transgenic (tg) mice (overproducing human Aβ) show very little neurodegeneration. The situation is dramatically different in tg-Drosophila. Here, Aβ1–42 is a potent neurotoxin and is therefore arguably a more suitable model animal for such studies [1]. We addressed the question if cell toxicity is cell type and amyloid polymorph dependent.
The basis for selective vulnerability of certain cell types for misfolded proteins (MPs) in neurodegenerative diseases is largely unknown. This knowledge is crucial for understanding disease progression in relation to MPs spreading in the CNS. We assessed this issue in Drosophila by cell-specific expression of human A beta 1-42 associated with Alzheimers disease. Expression of A beta 1-42 in various neurons resulted in concentration-dependent severe neurodegenerative phenotypes, and intraneuronal ringtangle-like aggregates with immature fibril properties when analyzed by aggregate-specific ligands. Unexpectedly, expression of A beta 1-42 from a pan-glial driver produced a mild phenotype despite massive brain load of A beta 1-42 aggregates, even higher than in the strongest neuronal driver. Glial cells formed more mature fibrous aggregates, morphologically distinct from aggregates found in neurons, and was mainly extracellular. Our findings implicate that A beta 1-42 cytotoxicity is both cell and aggregate morphotype dependent.
Brain amyloid plaques are a hallmark of Alzheimers disease (AD), and primarily consist of aggregated A beta peptides. While A beta 1-40 and A beta 1-42 are the most abundant, a number of other A beta peptides have also been identified. Studies have indicated differential toxicity for these various A beta peptides, but in vivo toxicity has not been systematically tested. To address this issue, we generated improved transgenic Drosophila UAS strains expressing 11 pertinent A beta peptides. UAS transgenic flies were generated by identical chromosomal insertion, hence removing any transgenic position effects, and crossed to a novel and robust Gal4 driver line. Using this improved Gal4/UAS set-up, survival and activity assays revealed that A beta 1-42 severely shortens lifespan and reduces activity. N-terminal truncated peptides were quite toxic, with 3-42 similar to 1-42, while 11-42 showed a pronounced but less severe phenotype. N-terminal mutations in 3-42 (E3A) or 11-42 (E11A) resulted in reduced toxicity for 11-42, and reduced aggregation for both variants. Strikingly, C-terminal truncation of A beta (1-41, -40, -39, -38, -37) were non-toxic. In contrast, C-terminal extension to 1-43 resulted in reduced lifespan and activity, but not to the same extent as 1-42. Mutating residue 42 in 1-42 (A42D, A42R and A42W) greatly reduced A beta accumulation and toxicity. Histological and biochemical analysis revealed strong correlation between in vivo toxicity and brain A beta aggregate load, as well as amount of insoluble A beta. This systematic Drosophila in vivo and in vitro analysis reveals crucial N- and C-terminal specificity for A beta neurotoxicity and aggregation, and underscores the importance of residues 1-10 and E11, as well as a pivotal role of A42.
The generation of distinct neuronal sub-types at different axial levels relies upon both anteroposterior and temporal cues. However, the integration between these cues is poorly understood. In the Drosophila CNS, the segmentally repeated neuroblast 5-6 generates a unique group of neurons, the Apterous cluster, only in thoracic segments. Recent studies have identified elaborate genetic pathways acting to control the generation of these neurons. These insights, combined with novel markers, provide a unique opportunity for addressing how anteroposterior and temporal cues are integrated to generate segment-specific neuronal sub-types. We find that Pbx/Meis, Hox and temporal genes act in three different ways. Posteriorly, Pbx/Meis and posterior Hox genes block lineage progression within an early temporal window, by triggering cell cycle exit. Because Ap neurons are generated late in the thoracic 5-6 lineage, this prevents generation of Ap cluster cells in the abdomen. Thoracically, Pbx/Meis and anterior Hox genes integrate with late temporal genes to specify Ap clusters, via activation of a specific feed-forward loop. In brain segments, ‘Ap cluster cells’ are present but lack both proper Hox and temporal coding. Only by simultaneously altering Hox and temporal gene activity in all segments can Ap clusters be generated throughout the neuroaxis. This study provides the first detailed analysis of an identified neuroblast lineage along the entire neuroaxis, and provides novel insight into how Hox/Pbx/Meis anteroposterior cues are integrated with temporal cues. It reveals a surprisingly restricted yet multifaceted function of the anteroposterior cues with respect to lineage control and cell fate specification.
[No abstract available]
In the Drosophila ventral nerve cord, segmentally repeated sets of ∼80 motoneurons are generated during embryogenesis. Within each hemisegment, each motoneuron is characterised by its axonal projection and innervation of a particular target muscle as well as its dendritic tree in the central nervous system. Codes of transcriptional regulators appear to specify in a hierarchical fashion the cell type, motoneuron sub-types and eventually unique cellular identities. Recent studies show that patterns of connectivity in the periphery are mirrored by patterns of dendritic arborisation centrally thereby providing a neuronal correlate of connectivity to the anatomy of the motor system in the periphery. While the principal mechanisms that underlie the development of the peripheral neuromuscular system have been studied in some detail, much less is known about how the dendrites and their patterns of connections develop in the CNS. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Motor neurons are defined by their axon projections, which exit the CNS to innervate somatic or visceral musculature, yet remarkably little is known about how motor axons are programmed to exit the CNS. Here, we describe the role of the Drosophila Zfh1 transcription factor in promoting axon exit from the CNS. Zfh1 is detected in all embryonic somatic motor neurons, glia associated with the CNS surface and motor axons, and one identified interneuron. In zfh1 mutants, ventral projecting motor axons often stall at the edge of the CNS, failing to enter the muscle field, despite having normal motor neuron identity. Conversely, ectopic Zfh1 induces a subset of interneurons-all normally expressing two or more "ventral motor neuron transcription factors" (e.g. Islet, Hb9, Nkx6, Lim3)-to project laterally and exit the CNS. We conclude that Zfh1 is required for ventral motor axon exit from the CNS. © 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
A number of transcription factors that are expressed within most, if not all, embryonic neuroblast (NB) lineages participate in neural subtype specification. Some have been extensively studied in several NB lineages (e.g. components of the temporal gene cascade) whereas others only within specific NB lineages. To what extent they function in other lineages remains unknown. Klumpfuss (Klu), the Drosophila ortholog of the mammalian Wilms tumor 1 (WT1) protein, is one such transcription factor. Studies in the NB4-2 lineage have suggested that Klu functions to ensure that the two ganglion mother cells (GMCs) in this embryonic NB lineage acquire different fates. Owing to limited lineage marker availability, these observations were made only for the NB4-2 lineage. Recent findings reveal that Klu is necessary for larval neuroblast growth and self-renewal. We have extended the study of Klu to the well-known embryonic NB5-6T lineage and describe a novel role for Klu in the Drosophila embryonic CNS. Our results demonstrate that Klu is expressed specifically in the postmitotic Ap4/FMRFa neuron, promoting its differentiation through the initiation of BMP signaling. Our findings indicate a pleiotropic function of Klu in Ap cluster specification in general and particularly in Ap4 neuron differentiation, indicating that Klu is a multitasking transcription factor. Finally, our studies indicate that a transitory downregulation of klu is crucial for the specification of the Ap4/FMRFa neuron. Similar to WT1, klu seems to have either self-renewal or differentiation-promoting functions, depending on the developmental context.
Protein function is encoded within the amino acid coding sequence and the variation in this sequence, and subsequent structure, provide the bases for functional diversification at the molecular and organismal levels. However, how separate protein domainscooperate to build protein activity remains largely unknown. Focusing on three domains of central Hox transcription factors, we mutagenized combinations of their domains to investigate their intrinsic functional organization. Our results demonstrate a high degree of domain interactivity, with an orchestrating role of a structurally plastic C-terminal extension of the homeodomain (HD). This domain provides, in a folding dependant manner, a topologically constrained contact with the Hox cofactor Extradenticle, which impacts the positioning of the recognition helix in the major groove of DNA. These findings provide novel insights in HD/DNA target recognition and, given the phylogeny of this C-terminal extension, also shed light on the molecular bases underlying the functional diversification of paralogous Hox families.
Protein function is encoded within protein sequence and protein domains. However, how protein domains cooperate within a protein to modulate overall activity and how this impacts functional diversification at the molecular and organism levels remains largely unaddressed. Focusing on three domains of the central class Drosophila Hox transcription factor AbdominalA (AbdA), we used combinatorial domain mutations and most known AbdA developmental functions as biological readouts to investigate how protein domains collectively shape protein activity. The results uncover redundancy, interactivity, and multifunctionality of protein domains as salient features underlying overall AbdA protein activity, providing means to apprehend functional diversity and accounting for the robustness of Hox-controlled developmental programs. Importantly, the results highlight context-dependency in protein domain usage and interaction, allowing major modifications in domains to be tolerated without general functional loss. The non-pleoitropic effect of domain mutation suggests that protein modification may contribute more broadly to molecular changes underlying morphological diversification during evolution, so far thought to rely largely on modification in gene cis-regulatory sequences.
In the Drosophila nerve cord, a subset of neurons expresses the neuropeptide FMRFamide related (Fmrf). Fmrf expression is controlled by a combinatorial code of intrinsic factors and an extrinsic BMP signal. However, this previously identified code does not fully explain the regulation of Fmrf. We have found that the Dachshund (Dac) and Eyes Absent (Eya) transcription co-factors participate in this combinatorial code. Previous studies have revealed an intimate link between Dac and Eya during eye development. Here, by analyzing their function in neurons with multiple phenotypic markers, we demonstrate that they play independent roles in neuronal specification, even within single cells. dac is required for high-level Fmrf expression, and acts potently together with apterous and BMP signaling to trigger Fmrf expression ectopically, even in motoneurons. By contrast, eya regulates Fmrf expression by controlling both axon pathfinding and BMP signaling, but cannot trigger Fmrf ectopically. Thus, we show that dac and eya perform entirely different functions in a single cell type to ultimately regulate a single phenotypic outcome.
Studies of developmental cell death in the nervous system have revealed two different modes of programmed cell death (PCD). One results from competition for target-derived trophic factors and leads to the stochastic removal of neurons and/or glia. A second, hard-wired form of PCD involves the lineage-specific, stereotypical death of identifiable neurons, glia or undifferentiated cells. Although traditionally associated with invertebrates, this programmed PCD can also occur in vertebrates. Recent studies have shed light on its genetic control and have revealed that activation of the apoptotic machinery can be under the same complex, combinatorial control as the expression of terminal differentiation genes. This review will highlight these findings and will suggest why such complex control evolved.
In vertebrates, neurons often undergo apoptosis after differentiating and extending their axons. By contrast, in the developing nervous system of invertebrate embryos apoptosis typically occurs soon after cells are generated. Here, we show that the Drosophila dMP2 and MP1 pioneer neurons undergo segment-specific apoptosis at late embryonic stages, long after they have extended their axons and have performed their pioneering role in guiding follower axons. This segmental specificity is achieved by differential expression of the Hox gene Abdominal B, which in posterior segments prevents pioneer neuron death postmitotically and cell-autonomously by repressing the RHG-motif cell death activators reaper and grim. Our results identify the first clear case of a cell-autonomous and anti-apoptotic role for a Hox gene in vivo. In addition, they provide a novel mechanism linking Hox positional information to differences in neuronal architecture along the anteroposterior axis by the selective elimination of mature neurons.
Insulin and related peptides play important and conserved functions in growth and metabolism. Although Drosophila has proved useful for the genetic analysis of insulin functions, little is known about the transcription factors and cell lineages involved in insulin production. Within the embryonic central nervous system, the MP2 neuroblast divides once to generate a dMP2 neuron that initially functions as a pioneer, guiding the axons of other later-born embryonic neurons. Later during development, dMP2 neurons in anterior segments undergo apoptosis but their posterior counterparts persist. We show here that surviving posterior dMP2 neurons no longer function in axonal scaffolding but differentiate into neuroendocrine cells that express insulin-like peptide 7 (Ilp7) and innervate the hindgut. We find that the postmitotic transition from pioneer to insulin-producing neuron is a multistep process requiring retrograde bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signalling and four transcription factors: Abdominal-B, Hb9, Fork Head, and Dimmed. These five inputs contribute in a partially overlapping manner to combinatorial codes for dMP2 apoptosis, survival, and insulinergic differentiation. Ectopic reconstitution of this code is sufficient to activate Ilp7 expression in other postmitotic neurons. These studies reveal striking similarities between the transcription factors regulating insulin expression in insect neurons and mammalian pancreatic β-cells. © 2008 Miguel-Aliaga et al.
A readily evident feature of animal central nervous systems (CNSs), apparent in all vertebrates and many invertebrates alike, is its "wedge-like appearance, with more cells generated in anterior than posterior regions. This wedge could conceivably be established by an antero-posterior (A-P) gradient in the number of neural progenitor cells, their proliferation behaviors, and/or programmed cell death (PCD). However, the contribution of each of these mechanisms, and the underlying genetic programs, are not well understood. Building upon recent progress in the Drosophila melanogaster (Drosophila) ventral nerve cord (VNC), we address these issues in a comprehensive manner. We find that, although PCD plays a role in controlling cell numbers along the A-P axis, the main driver of the wedge is a gradient of daughter proliferation, with divisions directly generating neurons (type 0) being more prevalent posteriorly and dividing daughters (type I) more prevalent anteriorly. In addition, neural progenitor (NB) cell-cycle exit occurs earlier posteriorly. The gradient of type I amp;gt; 0 daughter proliferation switch and NB exit combine to generate radically different average lineage sizes along the A-P axis, differing by more than 3-fold in cell number. We find that the Hox homeotic genes, expressed in overlapping A-P gradients and with a late temporal onset in NBs, trigger the type I amp;gt; 0 daughter proliferation switch and NB exit. Given the highly evolutionarily conserved expression of overlapping Hox homeotic genes in the CNS, our results point to a common mechanism for generating the CNS wedge.
During embryonic development, a number of genetic cues act to generate neuronal diversity. While intrinsic transcriptional cascades are well-known to control neuronal sub-type cell fate, the target cells can also provide critical input to specific neuronal cell fates. Such signals, denoted retrograde signals, are known to provide critical survival cues for neurons, but have also been found to trigger terminal differentiation of neurons. One salient example of such target-derived instructive signals pertains to the specification of the Drosophila FMRFamide neuropeptide neurons, the Tv4 neurons of the ventral nerve cord. Tv4 neurons receive a BMP signal from their target cells, which acts as the final trigger to activate the FMRFa gene. A recent FMRFa-eGFP genetic screen identified several genes involved in Tv4 specification, two of which encode components of the U5 subunit of the spliceosome: brr2 (l(3) 72Ab) and Prp8. In this study, we focus on the role of RNA processing during target- derived signaling. We found that brr2 and Prp8 play crucial roles in controlling the expression of the FMRFa neuropeptide specifically in six neurons of the VNC (Tv4 neurons). Detailed analysis of brr2 revealed that this control is executed by two independent mechanisms, both of which are required for the activation of the BMP retrograde signaling pathway in Tv4 neurons: (1) Proper axonal pathfinding to the target tissue in order to receive the BMP ligand. (2) Proper RNA splicing of two genes in the BMP pathway: the thickveins (tkv) gene, encoding a BMP receptor subunit, and the Medea gene, encoding a co-Smad. These results reveal involvement of specific RNA processing in diversifying neuronal identity within the central nervous system.
A prominent aspect of most, if not all, central nervous systems (CNSs) is that anterior regions (brain) are larger than posterior ones (spinal cord). Studies in Drosophila and mouse have revealed that Polycomb Repressor Complex 2 (PRC2), a protein complex responsible for applying key repressive histone modifications, acts by several mechanisms to promote anterior CNS expansion. However, it is unclear what the full spectrum of PRC2 action is during embryonic CNS development and how PRC2 intersects with the epigenetic landscape. We removed PRC2 function from the developing mouse CNS, by mutating the key gene Eed, and generated spatio-temporal transcriptomic data. To decode the role of PRC2, we developed a method that incorporates standard statistical analyses with probabilistic deep learning to integrate the transcriptomic response to PRC2 inactivation with epigenetic data. This multi-variate analysis corroborates the central involvement of PRC2 in anterior CNS expansion, and also identifies several unanticipated cohorts of genes, such as proliferation and immune response genes. Furthermore, the analysis reveals specific profiles of regulation via PRC2 upon these gene cohorts. These findings uncover a differential logic for the role of PRC2 upon functionally distinct gene cohorts that drive CNS anterior expansion. To support the analysis of emerging multi-modal datasets, we provide a novel bioinformatics package that integrates transcriptomic and epigenetic datasets to identify regulatory underpinnings of heterogeneous biological processes.
During CNS development, there is prominent expansion of the anterior region, the brain. In Drosophila, anterior CNS expansion emerges from three rostral features: (1) increased progenitor cell generation, (2) extended progenitor cell proliferation, (3) more proliferative daughters. We find that tailless (mouse Nr2E1/Tlx), otp/Rx/hbn (Otp/Arx/Rax) and Doc1/2/3 (Tbx2/3/6) are important for brain progenitor generation. These genes, and earmuff (FezF1/2), are also important for subsequent progenitor and/or daughter cell proliferation in the brain. Brain TF comisexpression can drive brain-profile proliferation in the nerve cord, and can reprogram developing wing discs into brain neural progenitors. Brain TF expression is promoted by the PRC2 complex, acting to keep the brain free of anti-proliferative and repressive action of Hox homeotic genes. Hence, anterior expansion of the Drosophila CNS is mediated by brain TF driven super-generation of progenitors, as well as hyper-proliferation of progenitor and daughter cells, promoted by PRC2-mediated repression of Hox activity.