In this study, a developed co-simulation method, which couples 1D-fluid and 3D-structural models, has been utilised to simulate wear in a hydraulic percussion unit. The effect of wear is generally detrimental on performance and lifetime for such units, but can also cause catastrophic failure and breakdown, requiring a total overhaul and replacement of core components. One experiment of standard straight impact was performed to investigate the tolerance against seizure. The percussion unit was operated at successively increasing operating pressures, and the level of wear was registered at each step, until seizure occurred. The co-simulation model was used to replicate the running conditions from the experiment to simulate the structural response to be used as input for the wear routine to calculate the wear depth. The wear pattern from the simulations corresponds well to the wear pattern from the experiment. Further, the effect of a misaligned impact on wear development was also studied, as this is a loading situation that typically occurs for hydraulic percussion units. The study demonstrates that the simulation method used has a potential for simulating wear and predicting seizure in hydraulic percussion units.

The aim of this study was to estimate and compare the muscular metabolic power produced in the human body using musculoskeletal inverse-dynamics during cross-country sit-skiing. Two sitting positions were adapted for athletes with reduced trunk and hip muscle control, knee low with frontal trunk support (KL-fix), and knee high (KH). Five female national class able-bodied cross-country skiers performed submaximal and maximal exercise in both sitting positions, while recording 3-D kinematics, pole forces, electromyography and respiratory variables. Simulations were performed from these experimental results and muscular metabolic power was computed. The main part of the muscle metabolic power was produced in the upper limbs for both sitting positions, but KH produced more muscle metabolic power in lower limbs and trunk during maximal intensity. KH was also more efficient, utilizing less muscular metabolic power during submaximal intensities, relatively less power in the upper limbs and more power in the trunk, hip and lower limb muscles. This implies that sitting position KH is preferable for high power output when using able-bodied simulation models. This study showed the potential of using musculoskeletal simulations to improve the understanding of how different equipment design and muscles contribute to performance.

In this study, a previously developed co-simulation method has been expanded to also simulate the dynamic behaviour of sealing gap regions in hydraulic percussion units. This approach is based on a 1D system model representing the fluid components and a 3D finite element model representing the structural parts of a hydraulic hammer. The sealing gap is a fundamental feature of a percussion unit, where the reciprocating motion of the piston is generated by the valve mechanism of the sealing gap. When the gap is closed it will prevent fluid flow between regions of different pressure levels. However, a small leakage flow through the gap will always occur which size depends on the clearance and the position of the piston. The method proposed here will take the structural motion and deformation into consideration when calculating the leakage flow. The deformed state of the structure is approximated by a cylindrical surface, in a least square manner, and communicated through the co-simulation interface to the fluid simulation module, and then used when calculating the leakage flow. This method aims at a more accurate simulation of the leakage flow that will not only yield a more realistic description of the mechanism on the local level, but also a more accurate estimation of global parameters such as overall performance and efficiency. The results indicate that the simulated leakage flow will decrease when dynamic gaps are used in comparison to static gaps, which is a consequence of the deformed structure that will generate smaller clearances. The leakage flow for the dynamic gaps will even be lower than for the static perfectly concentric case, mainly due to the reduction of clearances. The results also indicate that the dynamic eccentricity does not have a major influence on the leakage flow. The outcome from this study highlights the potentials of the described co-simulation approach for analysing the dynamics of the sealing gaps in a hydraulic percussion unit (i.e. gap heights, eccentricity ratios, etc.) including the evaluation of leakage flows and its impact on the overall performance. © 2021

Overuse injuries in the shoulders and lower back are hypothesized to be common in cross-country sit-skiing. Athletes with reduced trunk muscle control mainly sit with the knees higher than the hips (KH). To reduce spinal flexion, a position with the knees below the hips (KL) was enabled for these athletes using a frontal trunk support. The aim of the study was to compare the shoulder joint (glenohumeral joint) and L4-L5 joint reactions of the KL and KH sitting positions. Five able-bodied female athletes performed submaximal and maximal exercise tests in the sitting positions KL and KH on a ski ergometer. Measured pole forces and 3-dimensional kinematics served as input for inverse-dynamics simulations to compute the muscle forces and joint reactions in the shoulder and L4-L5 joint. This was the first musculoskeletal simulation study of seated double poling. The results showed that the KH position was favorable for higher performance and decreased values of the shoulder joint reactions for female able-bodied athletes with full trunk control. The KL position was favorable for lower L4-L5 joint reactions and might therefore reduce the risk of lower back injuries. These results indicate that it is hard to optimize both performance and safety in the same sit-ski.

INTRODUCTION In cross-country sit-skiing (CCSS) athletes with reduced trunk control mainly sit with their knees higher than the hips (KH) to increase trunk stability. To improve the spine curvature by reducing kyphosis a new sitting position was created where the knees are lower than the hips by help of a forward trunk support (KL). The aim of this study was to evaluate the new KL position and compare it to KH in terms of physiological and biomechanical measurements as well as musculoskeletal simulations. METHODS Five abled-bodied female cross-country skiers (62.6±8.1kg, 1.67±0.05m) performed two sets of tests; one in each sitting position on a skiing ergometer (ThoraxTrainer A/S, Denmark). Each test comprised a 30s all-out test (AO), an incremental submaximal test (4 to 6 x 3 min, SUB1-SUB6) and a maximal time-trial test of 3 min (MAX). During SUB and MAX external power and kinematics were measured. Metabolic rates (MR) were calculated from oxygen consumption and lactate concentrations. The AnyBody Modelling system (AMS 6.0, Anybody Technology A/S, Denmark) were used to simulate full-body musculoskeletal models over 4 poling cycles of SUB2, SUB4 and MAX. From the simulations muscular metabolic rate (mMR) and musculo-skeletal efficiency (ME) were computed (Holmberg et al., 2013). RESULTS & DISCUSSION The performance (W/kg) was higher in KH (p < 0.01) in both AO (24%) and MAX (32%). KL had more flexed knee, more extended hip and less kyphosis in trunk, while KH had larger range of motion (ROM) in hip and larger flexion and ROM in spine at SUB4 and MAX. Gross efficiency (GE) was higher in KH than KL. The total MR and ratio of anaerobic MR to total MR were higher in KL at SUB3 and SUB4. Simulations showed that 4 subjects had higher ME in KH for both SUB4 and MAX, though no statistical significance were observed. mMR were higher for KL at SUB2 and SUB4 but it was higher for KH at MAX. The ratio of mMR in body parts to total mMR showed higher ratio for KL in arm-shoulders (6.7-9.1%) and higher ratio for KH in trunk (3.7-4.6%) and hip-legs (3.0-4.6%). CONCLUSION The physiological results were comparable to others (Lajunen, 2014 & Verellen et al, 2012) and the simulation results were novel by showing how the motion of the trunk contributes to the total metabolic rate. KH position showed higher performance and GE while the KL position indicated higher mMR for arm-shoulders, and had also higher anaerobic MR. Therefore the KH position is favorable for abled-bodied athletes because KL limits trunk motion. REFERENCES Holmberg, L. J. et al. (2013). Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Engin, 16(9), 987-992. Lajunen, K. (2014). Effect of sitting posture on sit-skiing economy. Bachelor’s thesis, University of Jyväskylä.Verellen, J. et al. (2012). Eur J Appl Physiol, 112(3), 983-989.

The aims of the study were to examine: how many and which steps are needed to initiate and complete accelerations and turnings at different angles at different approach speeds; and how an intended turning angle and approach speed influence the magnitude of the actual turning angle in each step. Eight soccer players participated in the study. They performed acceleration and turnings: 1) from a standstill; 2) while already jogging; and 3) while already running on an outdoor soccer field. The speeds and angles were calculated from the data obtained from the high-end Global Navigation Satellite System. The high correlation between the intended turning angle and actual turning angle indicated the major turning steps during a turn. The intended turning angle revealed a large effect on the magnitude of the turning angle during the side-step (r = 0.995, p < 0.01) and the following step (r = 0.950, p < 0.01) for acceleration and turning from a standstill, and during the first two steps following the side-step for starts made while already jogging (r= 0.919, p < 0.01; r = 0.952, p < 0.01) and running (r = 0.897, p < 0.01; r = 0.881, p < 0.01). Further, a major part of the turning began earlier at a lower approach speed, which allowed the turning to be more quickly completed. In conclusion, the effect of acceleration with turning on the turning angle could already be seen two steps before and up to two steps after the major turning steps during a turn.

There is a critical need for research that describes the extent to which impairments of varying type, severity and distribution impact performance in Paralympic sports. It is important with evidence-based judgment on how the impairments aect performance. In the following, we present a complementary evidence-based tool for classication.

Let us start with an example. We recently presented a study (Holmberg et al., 2012)1 that utilized two full-body musculoskeletal simulation models of cross-country skiing (double-poling). The models were identical except that one carried no muscles in the right lower leg and foot; thus mimicking a lower leg prosthesis. It was hypothesized that a lower leg prosthesis would inuence muscular work throughout the whole body. Results showed that to generate the same motion and external work, an able-bodied skier only had to produce about 80% metabolic muscle work compared to a disabled skier (with a non-active right lower leg prosthesis).

In reality there is always psychological factors present and it is probably not possible to nd two human beings (one fully functional and one impaired) with the same tness, size, strength and technique. Thus, it is hard to nd the unbiased eect of an impairment on performance in a speci c sport. The example above shows the strength of using simulations because a  musculoskeletal model yields quantitative data on the unbiased eect of dierent functional impairments.

In cross-country skiing, athletes with functional impairments are, in 'competition format' classification, assigned to dierent categories with weight factors. Athletes perform their race and the result list is presented as race time multiplied by weight factor. In the future, musculoskeletal simulations may assist in answering how a specic functional impairment aects performance and thereby improve the fairness in assigning weight factors for classication.

This study is on how leg utilisation may affect skiing efficiency and performance in double-poling ergometry. Three experiments were conducted, each with a different style of the double-poling technique: traditional with small knee range-of-motion and fixed heels (TRAD); modern with large knee range-of-motion and fixed heels (MOD1) and modern with large knee range-of-motion and free heels (MOD2). For each style, motion data were extracted with automatic marker recognition of reflective markers and applied to a 3D full-body musculoskeletal simulation model. Skiing efficiency (skiing work divided by metabolic muscle work) and performance (forward impulse) were computed from the simulation output. Skiing efficiency was 4.5%, 4.1% and 4.1% for TRAD, MOD1 and MOD2, respectively. Performance was 111, 143 and 149Ns for TRAD, MOD1 and MOD2, respectively. Thus, higher lower body utilisation increased the performance but decreased the skiing efficiency. These results demonstrate the potential of musculoskeletal simulations for skiing efficiency estimations.

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It has recently been pointed out that muscle decomposition influence muscle force estimates in musculoskeletal simulations. We show analytically and with numerical simulations that this influence depends on the recruitment criteria. Moreover, we also show that the proper choices of force normalization factors may overcome the issue. Such factors for the minmax and the polynomial criteria are presented.

Why copy the best athletes? When you finally learn their technique, they may have already moved on. Using muscluloskeletal biomechanics you might be able to add the "know-why" so that you can lead, instead of being left in the swells.

This dissertation presents the theoretical framework of musculoskeletal modeling using inverse dynamics with static optimization. It explores some of the possibilities and limitations of musculoskeletal biomechanics in cross-country skiing, especially double-poling. The basic path of the implementation is shown and discussed, e.g. the issue of muscle model choice. From that discussion it is concluded that muscle contraction dynamics is needed to estimate individual muscle function in double-poling. Several computer simulation models, using The Anybody Modeling System™, have been created to study different cross-country skiing applications. One of the applied studies showed that the musculoskeletal system is not a collection of discrete uncoupled parts because kinematic differences in the lower leg region caused kinetic differences in the other end of the body. An implication of the results is that the kinematics and kinetics of the whole body probably are important when studying skill and performance in sports. Another one of the applied studies showed how leg utilisation may affect skiing efficiency and performance in double-poling ergometry. Skiing efficiency was defined as skiing work divided by metabolic muscle work, performance was defined as forward impulse. A higher utilization of the lower-body increased the performance, but decreased the skiing efficiency. The results display the potential of musculoskeletal biomechanics for skiing efficiency estimations. The subject of muscle decomposition is also studied. It is shown both analytically and with numerical simulations that muscle force estimates may be affected by muscle decomposition depending on the muscle recruitment criteria. Moreover, it is shown that proper choices of force normalization factors may overcome this issue. Such factors are presented for two types of muscle recruitment criteria.

To sum up, there are still much to do regarding both the theoretical aspects as well as the practical implementations before predictions on one individual skier can be made with any certainty. But hopefully, this disseration somewhat furthers the fundamental mechanistic understanding of cross-country skiing, and shows that musculoskeletal biomechanics will be a useful complement to existing experimental methods in sports biomechanics.

This paper uses two examples, from cross country skiing and badminton, to illustrate the idea of using musculoskeletal simulation as a tool to understand and ultimately optimize sports performance. The results show that the analysis provides insight into the performances that cannot be obtained by other means, and it is advocated that this insight ultimately can lead to better coaching. The importance of “know-why” over “know-how” is stressed, and it is hypothesized that this may enable athletes to learn difficult techniques faster.

Varför ska man kopiera de som är bäst? När man väl lärt sig deras teknik så har de bästa kanske redan gått vidare och utvecklat ännu bättre tekniker? Med biomekaniska simuleringar adderas insikt så att man kan utveckla sin teknik och ligga i framkant, istället för i svallvågorna.

This paper presents a measurement-driven, musculoskeletal, full-body simulation model for biomechanical analysis of the double-poling (DP) technique in cross-country skiing. DP is a fast and powerful full-body movement; therefore, it is interesting to examine whether inverse dynamics using static optimization is working for a musculoskeletal full-body model with high accelerations, a large range of motion, and realistic loads. An experiment was carried out to measure motion and pole force of a skier on a double-poling ergometer. Using the measurement data, a simulation model was implemented in the AnyBody Modeling System (AnyBody Technology A/S, Denmark). Experimental results of motion and pole force from the DP ergometer, and also simulation results of relative muscle force profiles, are presented. These results agree with results found in literature when the kinematics and external kinetics are similar. Consequently, it should be possible to use computer simulations of this type for cross-country skiing simulations. With a simulation model, it is possible to perform optimization studies and to ask and answer ‘what if’ questions. Solutions to such problems are not easy to obtain by traditional testing alone.

Traditionally, research on cross‐country skiing biomechanics is based mainly on experimental testing alone. Trying a different approach, this thesis explores the possibilities of using computational musculoskeletal biomechanics for cross‐country skiing. As far as the author knows, this has not been done before.

Cross‐country skiing is both fast and powerful, and the whole body is used to generate movement. Consequently, the computational method used needs to be able to handle a full‐body model with lots of muscles. This thesis presents several simulation models created in the AnyBody Modeling System, which is based on inverse dynamics and static optimization. This method allows for measurementdriven full‐body models with hundreds of muscles and rigid body segments of all major body parts.

A major result shown in the thesis is that with a good simulation model it is possible to predict muscle activation. Even though there is no claim of full validity of the simulation models, this result opens up a wide range of possibilities for computational musculoskeletal biomechanics in cross‐country skiing. Two example of new possibilities are shown in the thesis, finding antagonistic muscle pairs and muscle load distribution differences in different skiing styles. Being able to perform optimization studies and asking and answering “what if”‐questions really gives computational methods an edge compared to traditional testing.

To conclude, a combination of computational and experimental methods seems to be the next logical step to increase the understanding of the biomechanics of crosscountry skiing.

Varför tillverkar man produkter utan att ta hänsyn till människan som ska använda dem? Är det inte konstigt att det nästan inte finns någon egenskap hos tekniska produkter som inte går att simulera, men ingen vet belastningen på din ryggrad när du sitter i din kontorsstol?

Between June 18-20 2006, the Vuokatti Sports Institute in Finland - arguably the world's finest ski training facility - played host to the International Congress on Science and Nordic Skiing."Science and Nordic Skiing" brings together the very latest in cutting edge research and developments into Nordic Skiing - ski jumping and cross-country skiing to biomechanics and the effects of cold weather on exercise - presented by some of the world's foremost experts in the field."Science and Nordic Skiing" is destined to become an invaluable and practical reference for sports scientists, coaches, skiers and anyone involved in this exciting area of winter sports.It presents the very latest research and development in the world of science and Nordic skiing.

Between June 18-20 2006, the Vuokatti Sports Institute in Finland - arguably the world's finest ski training facility - played host to the International Congress on Science and Nordic Skiing."Science and Nordic Skiing" brings together the very latest in cutting edge research and developments into Nordic Skiing - ski jumping and cross-country skiing to biomechanics and the effects of cold weather on exercise - presented by some of the world's foremost experts in the field."Science and Nordic Skiing" is destined to become an invaluable and practical reference for sports scientists, coaches, skiers and anyone involved in this exciting area of winter sports.It presents the very latest research and development in the world of science and Nordic skiing.

DAVOS – Datorbaserade verktyg för optimering och simulering är ett EU fi nansierat (Mål 1) projekt som handlar om tillämpad teknik och tilllämpad optimering. Projektet omfattar ca 10 personer, ca 20 miljoner kr och kommer att pågå fram till 2004. Projektet drivs av institutionen för informationsteknologi och medier vid Mitthögskolan i Östersund men även personal från institutionen för teknik, fysik och matematik ingår och projektledare är docent Mats Tinnsten. I projektet ingår sex delprojekt varav två har en inriktning mot sport och sportrel aterad utrustning. DAVOS har goda kontakter med den regionala industrin, internationella universitet och forskargrupper, nationella universitet, forskargrupper och projekt. Särskilt goda och givande kontakter har projektet med Nationellt Vintersportcentrum och längdskidlandslaget samt ett antal elitskidåkare som har varit eller är studenter vid någon av teknikinstitutionerna vid campus Östersund. DAVOS handlar alltså om tillämpad teknik och optimering och verksamheten är inriktad på numeriska simuleringar och analyser av tekniska tillämpningar vilket närmast faller inom området maskinteknik och man kan ju fråga sig hur detta kan kopplas till området sport och sportutrustning. På ett alldeles naturligt sätt anser deltagarna i projektet och förhoppningsvis ska detta klarna vid genomläsning av den resterande texten.

Competitive cross-country skiing is considered to be a fast and powerful dynamic movement. It is unknown what level of complexity that is needed in a musculoskeletal model of a skiing movement, e.g. double-poling. Therefore, a simulation study is carried out to explore the influence of muscle model choice. The theoretical framework of two types of muscle models and their respective implementations are given. These models are a Hill-type model with contraction dynamics and a constant force model, respectively. Results show that it is necessary to incorporate muscle contraction dynamics to estimate individual muscle behaviour in double-poling. Moreover, it may be bad practice to model different body parts with different muscle models; the musculoskeletal system is not a collection of discrete uncoupled body parts and kinetic effects will propagate through the system.