Data-driven fault diagnosis requires training data that is representative of the different operating conditions of the system to capture its behavior. If training data is limited, one solution is to incorporate physical insights into machine learning models to improve their effectiveness. However, while previous works show the usefulness of hybrid approaches for isolation of faults, the impact of training data must be taken into consideration when drawing conclusions from data-driven residuals in a consistency-based diagnosis framework. By giving an understanding of the physical interaction between the signals, a hybrid fault diagnosis approach, can enforce model properties of residual generators to isolate faults that are not represented in training data. The objective of this work is to analyze the impact of limited training data when training neural network-based residual generators. It is also investigated how the use of structural information when selecting the network structure is a solution to limited training data and how to ameliorate the performance of hybrid approaches in face of this challenge.

With trends as IoT and increased connectivity, the availability of data is consistently increasing and its automated processing with, e.g., machine learning becomes more important. This is certainly true for the area of fault diagnostics and prognostics. However, for rare events like faults, the availability of meaningful data will stay inherently sparse making a pure data-driven approach more difficult. In this paper, the question when to use model-based, data-driven techniques, or a combined approach for fault diagnosis is discussed using real-world data of a permanent magnet synchronous machine. Key properties of the different approaches are discussed in a diagnosis context, performance quantified, and benefits of a combined approach are demonstrated.

This work presents a method for on-line condition monitoring of a hydraulic rock drill, though some of the findings can likely be applied in other applications. A fundamental difficulty for the rock drill application is discussed, namely the similarity between frequencies of internal standing waves and rock drill operation. This results in unpredictable pressure oscillations and superposition, which makes synchronization between measurement and model difficult. To overcome this, a data driven approach is proposed. The number and types of sensors are restricted due to harsh environmental conditions, and only operational data is available. Some faults are shown to be detectable using hand-crafted engineering features, with a direct physical connection to the fault of interest. Such features are easily interpreted and are shown to be robust against disturbances. Other faults are detected by classifying measured signals against a known reference. Dynamic Time Warping is shown to be an efficient way to measure similarity for cyclic signals with stochastic elements from disturbances, wave propagation and different durations, and also for cases with very small differences in measured pressure signals. Together, the two methods enables a step towards condition monitoring of a rock drill, robustly detecting very small changes in behaviour using a minimum amount of sensors. Copyright (C) 2021 The Authors.

User activity detection in grant-free random access massive machine type communication (mMTC) using pilot-hopping sequences can be formulated as solving a non-negative least squares (NNLS) problem. In this work, two architectures using different algorithms to solve the NNLS problem is proposed. The algorithms are implemented using a fully parallel approach and fixed-point arithmetic, leading to high detection rates and low power consumption. The first algorithm, fast projected gradients, converges faster to the optimal value. The second algorithm, multiplicative updates, is partially implemented in the logarithmic domain, and provides a smaller chip area and lower power consumption. For a detection rate of about one million detections per second, the chip area for the fast algorithm is about 0.7 mm 2 compared to about 0.5 mm 2 for the multiplicative algorithm when implemented in a 28 nm FD-SOI standard cell process at 1 V power supply voltage. The energy consumption is about 300 nJ/detection for the fast projected gradient algorithm using 256 iterations, leading to a convergence close to the theoretical. With 128 iterations, about 250 nJ/detection is required, with a detection performance on par with 192 iterations of the multiplicative algorithm for which about 100 nJ/detection is required.

The study of fault diagnosis on automotive engine systems has been an interesting and ongoing topic for many years. Numerous research projects were conducted by automakers and research institutions to discover new and more advanced methods to perform diagnosis for better fault isolation (FI). Some of the research in this field has been reported in.

When optimising the vehicle trajectory and powertrain energy management of hybrid electric vehicles, it is important to include look-ahead information such as road conditions and other traffic. One method for doing so is dynamic programming, but the execution time of such an algorithm on a general purpose CPU is too slow for it to be useable in real time. Significant improvements in execution time can be achieved by utilising parallel computations, for example, using a Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA). A tool for automatically converting a vehicle model written in C++ into code that can executed on an FPGA which can be used for dynamic programming-based control is presented in this paper. A vehicle model with a mild-hybrid powertrain is used as a case study to evaluate the developed tool and the output quality and execution time of the resulting hardware. Copyright (C) 2020 The Authors.

By running simulation models on FPGAs, their execution speed can be significantly improved, at the cost of increased development effort. This paper describes a project to develop a tool which converts simulation models written in high level languages into fast FPGA hardware. The tool currently converts code written using custom C++ data types into Verilog. A model of a hybrid electric vehicle is used as a case study, and the resulting hardware runs significantly faster than on a general purpose CPU.

The life of a vehicle is heavily influenced by how it is used, and usage information is critical to predict the future condition of the machine. In this work we present a method to categorize what task an earthmoving vehicle is performing, based on a data driven model and a single standalone accelerometer. By training a convolutional neural network using a couple of weeks of labeled data, we show that a three axis accelerometer is sufficient to correctly classify between 5 different classes with an accuracy over 96% for a balanced dataset with no manual feature generation. The results are also compared against some other machine learning techniques, showing that the convolutional neural network has the highest performance, although other techniques are not far behind. An important conclusion is that methods and ideas from the area of Human Activity Recognition (HAR) are applicable also for vehicles. Copyright (C) 2020 The Authors.

This paper presents a method to enhance fault isolation without adding physical sensors on a turbocharged spark ignited petrol engine system by designing additional residuals from an initial observer-based residuals setup. The best candidates from all potential additional residuals are selected using the concept of sequential residual generation to ensure best fault isolation performance for the least number of additional residuals required. A simulation testbed is used to generate realistic engine data for the design of the additional residuals and the fault isolation performance is verified using structural analysis method.

The life and condition of a mine truck frame are related to how the machine is used. Damage from stress cycles is accumulated over time, and measurements throughout the life of the machine are needed to monitor the condition. This results in high demands on the durability of sensors, especially in a harsh mining application. To make a monitoring system cheap and robust, sensors already available on the vehicles are preferred rather than additional strain gauges. The main question in this work is whether the existing on-board sensors can give the required information to estimate stress signals and calculate accumulated damage of the frame. Model complexity requirements and sensors selection are also considered. A final question is whether the accumulated damage can be used for prognostics and to increase reliability. The investigation is performed using a large data set from two vehicles operating in real mine applications. Coherence analysis, ARX-models, and rain flow counting are techniques used. The results show that a low number of available on-board sensors like load cells, damper cylinder positions, and angle transducers can give enough information to recreate some of the stress signals measured. The models are also used to show significant differences in usage by different operators, and its effect on the accumulated damage.

In this work, an implementation of a pilot-hopping sequence detector for massive machine type communication is presented. The architecture is based on solution a non-negative least squares problem. The results show that the architecture supporting 1024 users can perform more than one million detections per second with a power consumption of less than 70 mW when implemented in a 28 nm FD-SOI process.

Predictive maintenance aims to predict failures in components of a system, a heavy-duty vehicle in this work, and do maintenance before any actual fault occurs. Predictive maintenance is increasingly important in the automotive industry due to the development of new services and autonomous vehicles with no driver who can notice first signs of a component problem. The lead-acid battery in a heavy vehicle is mostly used during engine starts, but also for heating and cooling the cockpit, and is an important part of the electrical system that is essential for reliable operation. This paper develops and evaluates two machine-learning based methods for battery prognostics, one based on Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) neural networks and one on Random Survival Forest (RSF). The objective is to estimate time of battery failure based on sparse and non-equidistant vehicle operational data, obtained from workshop visits or over-the-air readouts. The dataset has three characteristics: 1) no sensor measurements are directly related to battery health, 2) the number of data readouts vary from one vehicle to another, and 3) readouts are collected at different time periods. Missing data is common and is addressed by comparing different imputation techniques. RSF- and LSTM-based models are proposed and evaluated for the case of sparse multiple-readouts. How to measure model performance is discussed and how the amount of vehicle information influences performance.

Finding the cheapest, or smallest, set of sensors such that a specified level of diagnosis performance is maintained is important to decrease cost while controlling performance. Algorithms have been developed to find sets of sensors that make faults detectable and isolable under ideal circumstances. However, due to model uncertainties and measurement noise, different sets of sensors result in different achievable diagnosability performance in practice. In this paper, the sensor selection problem is formulated to ensure that the set of sensors fulfils required performance specifications when model uncertainties and measurement noise are taken into consideration. However, the algorithms for finding the guaranteed global optimal solution are intractable without exhaustive search. To overcome this problem, a greedy stochastic search algorithm is proposed to solve the sensor selection problem. A case study demonstrates the effectiveness of the greedy stochastic search in finding sets close to the global optimum in short computational time.

Machine learning can be used to automatically process sensor data and create data-driven models for prediction and classification. However, in applications such as fault diagnosis, faults are rare events and learning models for fault classification is complicated because of lack of relevant training data. This paper proposes a hybrid diagnosis system design which combines model-based residuals with incremental anomaly classifiers. The proposed method is able to identify unknown faults and also classify multiple-faults using only single-fault training data. The proposed method is verified using a physical model and data collected from an internal combustion engine.

Maintenance planning is important in the automotive industry as it allows fleet owners or regular customers to avoid unexpected failures of the components. One cause of unplanned stops of heavy-duty trucks is failure in the lead-acid starter battery. High availability of the vehicles can be achieved by changing the battery frequently, but such an approach is expensive both due to the frequent visits to a workshop and also due to the component cost. Here, a data-driven method based on random survival forest (RSF) is proposed for predicting the reliability of the batteries. The dataset available for the study, covering more than 50 000 trucks, has two important properties. First, it does not contain measurements related directly to the battery health; second, there are no time series of measurements for every vehicle. In this paper, the RSF method is used to predict the reliability function for a particular vehicle using data from the fleet of vehicles given that only one set of measurements per vehicle is available. A theory for confidence bands for the RSF method is developed, which is an extension of an existing technique for variance estimation in the random forest method. Adding confidence bands to the RSF method gives an opportunity for an engineer to evaluate the confidence of the model prediction. Some aspects of the confidence bands are considered: their asymptotic behavior and usefulness in model selection. A problem of including time-related variables is addressed in this paper with the argument that why it is a good choice not to add them into the model. Metrics for performance evaluation are suggested, which show that the model can be used to schedule and optimize the cost of the battery replacement. The approach is illustrated extensively using the real-life truck data case study.

To leverage on model based engineering for fault diagnosis, it is useful to be able to do direct analysis of general purpose modelling languages for engineering systems. In this work, it is demonstrated how non-trivial Modelica models, for example utilizing the Modelica standard library, can be automatically transformed into a format where existing fault diagnosis analysis techniques are applicable. The procedure is demonstrated on a model of an air cooling system in the Gripen fighter aircraft developed by Saab, Sweden. It is discussed why the Modelica language is well suited for diagnosability analysis, and a number of non-trivial diagnosability analysis shows the efficacy of the approach. The methods extract the model structure, which gives additional insight into the system, e.g., highlighting model connections and possible model decompositions. (C) 2018, IFAC (International Federation of Automatic Control) Hosting by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Predictive maintenance of components has the potential to significantly reduce costs for maintenance and to reduce unexpected failures. Failure prognostics for heavy-duty truck lead-acid batteries is considered with a multilayer perceptron (MLP) predictive model. Data used in the study contains information about how approximately 46,000 vehicles have been operated starting from the delivery date until the date when they come to the workshop. The model estimates a reliability and lifetime probability function for a vehicle entering a workshop. First, this work demonstrates how heterogeneous data is handled, then the architectures of the MLP models are discussed. Main contributions are a battery maintenance planning method and predictive performance evaluation based on reliability and lifetime functions, a new model for reliability function when its true shape is unknown, the improved objective function for training MLP models, and handling of imbalanced data and comparison of performance of different neural network architectures. Evaluation shows significant improvements of the model compared to more simple, time-based maintenance plans.

A common architecture of model-based diagnosis systems is to use a set of residuals to detect and isolate faults. In the paper it is motivated that in many cases there are more possible candidate residuals than needed for detection and single fault isolation and key sources of varying performance in the candidate residuals are model errors and noise. This paper formulates a systematic method of how to select, from a set of candidate residuals, a subset with good diagnosis performance. A key contribution is the combination of a machine learning model, here a random forest model, with diagnosis specific performance specifications to select a high performing subset of residuals. The approach is applied to an industrial use case, an automotive engine, and it is shown how the trade-off between diagnosis performance and the number of residuals easily can be controlled. The number of residuals used are reduced from original 42 to only 12 without losing significant diagnosis performance. (C) 2018, IFAC (International Federation of Automatic Control) Hosting by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

To facilitate the use of advanced fault diagnosis analysis and design techniques to industrial sized systems, there is a need for computer support. This paper describes a Matlab toolbox and evaluates the software on a challenging industrial problem, air-path diagnosis in an automotive engine. The toolbox includes tools for analysis and design of model based diagnosis systems for large-scale differential algebraic models. The software package supports a complete tool-chain from modeling a system to generating C-code for residual generators. Major design steps supported by the tool are modeling, fault diagnosability analysis, sensor selection, residual generator analysis, test selection, and code generation. Structural methods based on efficient graph theoretical algorithms are used in several steps. In the automotive diagnosis example, a diagnosis system is generated and evaluated using measurement data, both in fault-free operation and with faults injected in the control-loop. The results clearly show the benefit of the toolbox in a model-based design of a diagnosis system. Latest version of the toolbox can be downloaded at faultdiagnosistoolbox.github.io. (C) 2017, IFAC (International Federation of Automatic Control) Hosting by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Structural approaches have shown to be useful for analyzing and designing diagnosis systems for industrial systems. In simulation and estimation literature, related theories about differential index have been developed and, also there, structural methods have been successfully applied for simulating large-scale differential algebraic models. A main contribution of this paper is to connect those theories and thus making the tools from simulation and estimation literature available for model based diagnosis design. A key step in the unification is an extension of the notion of differential index of exactly determined systems of equations to overdetermined systems of equations. A second main contribution is how differential-index can be used in diagnosability analysis and also in the design stage where an exponentially sized search space is significantly reduced. This allows focusing on residual generators where basic design techniques, such as standard state-observation techniques and sequential residual generation are directly applicable. The developed theory has a direct industrial relevance, which is illustrated with discussions on an automotive engine example. (C) 2017, IFAC (International Federation of Automatic Control) Hosting by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The life and condition of a MT65 mine truck frame is to a large extent related to how the machine is used. Damage from different stress cycles in the frame are accumulated over time, and measurements throughout the life of the machine are needed to monitor the condition. This results in high demands on the durability of sensors used. To make a monitoring system cheap and robust enough for a mining application, a small number of robust sensors are preferred rather than a multitude of local sensors such as strain gauges. The main question to be answered is whether a low number of robust on-board sensors can give the required information to recreate stress signals at various locations of the frame. Also the choice of sensors among many different locations and kinds are considered. A final question is whether the data could also be used to estimate road condition. By using accelerometer, gyroscope and strain gauge data from field tests of an Atlas Copco MT65 mine truck, coherence and Lasso-regression were evaluated as means to select which signals to use. ARX-models for stress estimation were created using the same data. By simulating stress signals using the models, rain flow counting and damage accumulation calculations were performed. The results showed that a low number of on-board sensors like accelerometers and gyroscopes could give enough information to recreate some of the stress signals measured. Together with a linear model, the estimated stress was accurate enough to evaluate the accumulated fatigue damage in a mining truck. The accumulated damage was also used to estimate the condition of the road on which the truck was traveling. To make a useful road monitoring system some more work is required, in particular regarding how vehicle speed influences damage accumulation.

The present paper proposes an advanced approach for Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) systems fault detection and isolation through a model-based diagnostic algorithm. The considered algorithm is developed upon a lumped parameter model simulating a whole PEMFC system oriented towards automotive applications. This model is inspired by other models available in the literature, with further attention to stack thermal dynamics and water management. The developed model is analysed by means of Structural Analysis, to identify the correlations among involved physical variables, defined equations and a set of faults which may occur in the system (related to both auxiliary components malfunctions and stack degradation phenomena). Residual generators are designed by means of Causal Computation analysis and the maximum theoretical fault isolability, achievable with a minimal number of installed sensors, is investigated. The achieved results proved the capability of the algorithm to theoretically detect and isolate almost all faults with the only use of stack voltage and temperature sensors, with significant advantages from an industrial point of view. The effective fault isolability is proved through fault simulations at a specific fault magnitude with an advanced residual evaluation technique, to consider quantitative residual deviations from normal conditions and achieve univocal fault isolation.

Detecting changes in residuals is important for fault detection and is commonly performed by thresholding the residual using, for example, a CUSUM test. However, detecting variations in the residual distribution, not causing a change of bias or increased variance, is difficult using these methods. A plug-and-play residual change detection approach is proposed based on sequential quantile estimation to detect changes in the residual cumulative density function. An advantage of the proposed algorithm is that it is non-parametric and has low computational cost and memory usage which makes it suitable for on-line implementations where computational power is limited.

The charge sustaining mode of a hybrid electric vehicle maintains the state of charge of the battery within a predetermined narrow band. Due to the poor system observability in this range, the state of charge estimation is tricky, and inadequate prior knowledge of the system uncertainties could lead to deterioration and divergence of estimates. In this paper, a comparative study of three estimators tuned based on the noise covariance matching technique is established in order to analyze their robustness in the state of charge estimation. Simulation results show a significant enhancement of filter accuracy using this adaptation. The adaptive particle filter has the best estimation results but it is vulnerable to model parameter uncertainties, further it is time consuming. On the other hand, the adaptive Unscented Kalman filter and the adaptive Extended Kalman filter show enough estimation accuracy, robustness for model uncertainty, and simplicity of implementation. (C) 2017, IFAC (International Federation of Automatic Control) Hosting by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

A hybrid diagnosis system design is proposed that combines model-based and data-driven diagnosis methods for fault isolation. A set of residuals are used to detect if there is a fault in the system and a consistency-based fault isolation algorithm is used to compute all diagnosis candidates that can explain the triggered residuals. To improve fault isolation, diagnosis candidates are ranked by evaluating the residuals using a set of one-class support vector machines trained using data from different faults. The proposed diagnosis system design is evaluated using simulations of a model describing the air-flow in an internal combustion engine.

A commonly used signal for engine misfire detection is the crankshaft angular velocity measured at the flywheel. However, flywheel manufacturing errors result in vehicle-to-vehicle variations in the measurements and have a negative impact on the misfire detection performance, where the negative impact is quantified for a number of vehicles. A misfire detection algorithm is proposed with flywheel error adaptation in order to increase robustness and reduce the number of mis-classifications. Since the available computational power is limited in a vehicle, a filter with low computational load, a Constant Gain Extended Kalman Filter, is proposed to estimate the flywheel errors. Evaluations using measurements from vehicles on the road show that the number of mis-classifications is significantly reduced when taking the estimated flywheel errors into consideration.

Most model-based diagnosis approaches reported in the literature adopt a generic architecture and approach. However, the fault hypotheses generated by these methods may differ. This is not only due to the methods, but also on the basic assumptions made by different diagnostic algorithms on fault manifestation and evolution. While comparing different diagnosis approaches, the assumptions made in each case will have a significant effect on fault diagnosability performance and must therefore also be taken into consideration. Thus, to make a fair comparison, the different approaches should be designed based on the same assumptions. This paper studies the relation between a set of commonly made assumptions and fault isolability performance in order to compare different diagnosis approaches. As a case study, five developed diagnosis systems for a wind turbine benchmark problem are evaluated to analyze the type of assumptions that are applied in the different designs.

A model-based misfire detection algorithm is proposed. The algorithm is able to detect misfires and identify the failing cylinder during different conditions, such as cylinder-to-cylinder variations, cold starts, and different engine behavior in different operating points. Also, a method is proposed for automatic tuning of the algorithm based on training data. The misfire detection algorithm is evaluated using data from several vehicles on the road and the results show that a low misclassification rate is achieved even during difficult conditions. (C) 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

To be able to evaluate quantitative fault diagnosability performance in model-based diagnosis is useful during the design of a diagnosis system. Different fault realizations are more or less likely to occur and the fault diagnosis problem is complicated by model uncertainties and noise. Thus, it is not obvious how to evaluate performance when all of this information is taken into consideration. Four candidates for quantifying fault diagnosability performance between fault modes are discussed. The proposed measure is called expected distinguishability and is based of the previous distinguishability measure and two methods to compute expected distinguishability are presented.

In northern Europe the electricity price is set by hourly rates one day in advance. The price fluctuates due to supply and demand, and these fluctuations are expected to increase when solar and wind power are increased in the energy system. The potential in cost reduction for heating a house and charging of an electrified vehicle by using a smart energy management system in a household is investigated. Dynamic programming is used and a simulation study of a household in Sweden comparing this optimal control scheme with a heuristic controller is carried out. The time frame in the study is one year and a novel way of handling the fact that the vehicle is disconnected from the grid at some times is developed. A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle is considered, but the methodology is the same also for pure electric vehicles. It is found that the potential in energy cost reduction for house heating and vehicle charging is significant and that using a smart energy management system is a promising path of cost reduction, especially with the introduction of electrified vehicles. 

Problems with starter batteries in heavy-duty trucks can cause costly unplanned stops along the road. Frequent battery changes can increase availability but is expensive and sometimes not necessary since battery degradation is highly dependent on the particular vehicle usage and ambient conditions. The main contribution of this work is case study where prognostic information on remaining useful life of lead-acid batteries in individual Scania heavy-duty trucks is computed. A data-driven approach using random survival forests is used where the prognostic algorithm has access to fleet operational data including 291 variables from $33 603$ vehicles from 5 different European markets. A main implementation aspect that is discussed is the treatment of accumulative variables such as vehicle age in the approach. Battery lifetime predictions are computed and evaluated on recorded data from Scania's fleet-management system and the effect of how accumulative variables are handled is analyzed.

An approach to loop-shaping feedback control design in the frequency domain via extremum seeking is proposed. Both plants and controllers are linear time-invariant systems of possibly infinite dimension. The controller is assumed to be dependent on a finite number of parameters. Discrete-time global extremum seeking algorithms are employed to minimise the difference between the desired loop shape and the estimate of the present loop shape by fine-tuning the controller parameters within a sampled-data framework. The sampling period plays an important role in guaranteeing global practical convergence to the optimum. A case study on PID control tuning is presented to demonstrate the applicability of the proposed method.

An important step in model-based fault detection is residual evaluation, where residuals are evaluated with the aim to detect changes in their behavior caused by faults. To handle residuals subject to time-varying uncertainties and disturbances, which indeed are present in practice, a novel statistical residual evaluation approach is presented. The main contribution is to base the residual evaluation on an explicit comparison of the probability distribution of the residual, estimated online using current data, with a no-fault residual distribution. The no-fault distribution is based on a set of a-priori known no-fault residual distributions, and is continuously adapted to the current situation. As a second contribution, a method is proposed for estimating the required set of no-fault residual distributions off-line from no-fault training data.The proposed residual evaluation approach is evaluated with measurement data on a residual for diagnosis of the gas-flow system of a Scania truck diesel engine. Results show that small faults can be reliable detected with the proposed approach in cases where regular methods fail.

Problems with starter batteries in heavy-duty trucks can cause costly unplanned stops along the road. Frequent battery changes can increase availability but is expensive and sometimes not necessary since battery degradation is highly dependent on the particular vehicle usage and ambient conditions. The main contribution of this work is a case-study where prognostic information on remaining useful life of lead-acid batteries in individual Scania heavy-duty trucks is computed. A data-driven approach using random survival forests is proposed where the prognostic algorithm has access to fleet management data including 291 variables from 33 603 vehicles from 5 different European markets. The data is a mix of numerical values such as temperatures and pressures, together with histograms and categorical data such as battery mount point. Implementation aspects are discussed such as how to include histogram data and how to reduce the computational complexity by reducing the number of variables. Finally, battery lifetime predictions are computed and evaluated on recorded data from Scania's fleet-management system.

Model-based approaches to fault detection and isolation (FDI) rely on accurate models of the plant and a sufficient number of reliable measurements for residual generation and analysis. However, in realistic situations, there can be uncertainties in the plant models and measurements, which have a negative impact on the diagnosability performance that depends on the system state. In other words, the impact of the uncertainties can be larger in some operating regions as compared to others. To achieve acceptable performance in practice, it is necessary to find a set of residuals that are sufficiently sensitive to faults but robust to uncertainties across all operating conditions. In this paper, a quantitative measure, called detectability ratio, is used to evaluate and quantify detectability performance of different residuals in different operating regions. This measure is used to find a minimal residual set that fulfills a set of desired diagnosability performance requirements. The proposed method is demonstrated and validated through a case study.

Information about wheel loader usage can be used in several ways to optimize customer adaption. First, optimizing the configuration and component sizing of a wheel loader to customer needs can lead to a significant improvement in e.g. fuel efficiency and cost. Second, relevant driving cycles to be used in the development of wheel loaders can be extracted from usage data. Third, on-line usage identification opens up for the possibility of implementing advanced look-ahead control strategies for wheel loader operation. The main objective here is to develop an on-line algorithm that automatically, using production sensors only, can extract information about the usage of a machine. Two main challenges are that sensors are not located with respect to this task and that significant usage disturbances typically occur during operation. The proposed method is based on a combination of several individually simple techniques using signal processing, state automaton techniques, and parameter estimation algorithms. The approach is found to berobust when evaluated on measured data of wheel loaders loading gravel and shot rock.

A number of residual generation methods have been developed for robust model-based fault detection and isolation (FDI). There have also been a number of offline (i.e., design-time) methods that focus on optimizing FDI performance (e.g., trading off detection performance versus cost). However, design-time algorithms are not tuned to optimize performance for different operating regions of system behavior. To do this, would need to define online measures of sensitivity and robustness, and use them to select the best residual set online as system behavior transitions between operating regions. In this paper we develop a quantitative measure of residual performance, called the detectability ratio that applies to additive and multiplicative uncertainties when determining the best residual set in different operating regions. We discuss this methodology and demonstrate its effectiveness using a case study.

Analyzing fault diagnosability performance for a given model, before developing a diagnosis algorithm, can be used to answer questions like “How difficult is it to detect a fault f_i?” or “How difficult is it to isolate a fault f_i from a fault f_j?”. The main contributions are the derivation of a measure, distinguishability, and a method for analyzing fault diagnosability performance of discrete-time descriptor models. The method, based on the Kullback–Leibler divergence, utilizes a stochastic characterization of the different fault modes to quantify diagnosability performance. Another contribution is the relation between distinguishability and the fault to noise ratio of residual generators. It is also shown how to design residual generators with maximum fault to noise ratio if the noise is assumed to be i.i.d. Gaussian signals. Finally, the method is applied to a heavy duty diesel engine model to exemplify how to analyze diagnosability performance of non-linear dynamic models.

Engine misfire detection is an important part of the On-Board Diagnostics (OBDII) legislations to reduce exhaust emissions and avoid damage to the catalytic converters. The flywheel angular velocity signal is analyzed, investigating how to use the signal in order to best detect misfires. An algorithm for engine misfire detection is proposed based on the flywheel angular velocity signal. The flywheel signal is used to estimate the torque at the flywheel and a test quantity is designed by weighting and thresholding the samples of estimated torque related to one combustion. During the development process, the Kullback-Leibler divergence is used to analyze the ability to detect a misfire given a test quantity and how the misfire detectability performance varies depending on, e.g., load and speed. The Kullback-Leibler divergence is also used for parameter optimization to maximize the difference between misfire data and fault-free data. Evaluation shows that the proposed misfire detection algorithm is able to have a low probability of false alarms while having a low probability of missed detections.

Fault detection and isolation (FDI) in automotive diesel engines is important in order to achieve and guarantee low exhaust emissions, high vehicle uptime, and efficient repair and maintenance. This paper illustrates how a set of general methods for model-based sequential residual generation and data-driven statistical residual evaluation can be combined into an automated design methodology. The automated design methodology is then utilized to create a complete FDI-system for an automotive diesel engine. The performance of the obtained FDI-system is evaluated using measurements from road drives and engine test-bed experiments. The overall performance of the FDI-system is good in relation to the required design effort. In particular no specific tuning of the FDI-system, or any adaption of the design methodology, was needed. It is illustrated how estimations of the statistical powers of the fault detection tests in the FDI-system can be used to further increase the performance, specifically in terms of fault isolability.

A flywheel angular velocity model for misfire and disturbance simulation is presented. Applications of the model are, for example, initial parameter calibration and robustness analysis of misfire detection algorithms. An analytical cylinder pressure model is used to model cylinder torque and a multi-body model with torsional flexibilities is used to model crankshaft and driveline oscillations. Misfires, cylinder variations, changes in auxiliary load, and flywheel manufacturing errors can be injected in the model and the resulting speed variations can be simulated. A qualitative validation of the model shows that simulated angular velocity captures the amplitude and oscillatory behavior of measurement data and the effects of different phenomena, such as misfire and flywheel manufacturing errors.

A sequential test selection algorithm is proposed which updates the set of active test quantities depending on the present minimal candidates. By sequentially updating the set of active test quantities, computational time and memory usage can be reduced. If test quantities are generated on-line, a sequential test selection algorithm gives information about which test quantities that should be created. The test selection problem is defined as an optimization problem where a set of active test quantities is chosen such that the cost is minimized while the set fulfills a required minimum detectability and isolability performance. A quantitative diagnosability measure, distinguishability, is used to quantify diagnosability performance of test quantities. The proposed test selection algorithm is applied to a DC-circuit where the diagnosis algorithm generates residuals on-line. Experiments show that the sequential test selection algorithm can significantly reduce the number of active test quantities during a scenario and still be able to identify the true faults.

This paper is focused on structural approaches to study diagnosability properties given a system model taking into account, both simultaneously or separately, integral and differential causal interpretations for differential constraints. We develop a model characterization and corresponding algorithms, for studying system diagnosability using a structural decomposition that avoids generating the full set of system analytical redundancy relations. Simultaneous application of integral and differential causal interpretations for differential constraints results in a mixed causality interpretation for the system. The added power of mixed causality is demonstrated using a Reverse Osmosis Subsystem from the Advanced Water Recovery System developed at the NASA Johnson Space Center. Finally, we summarize our work and provide a discussion of the advantages of mixed causality over just derivative or just integral causality.

Optimizing the configuration of a wheel loader to customer needs can lead to a significant increase in efficiency with respect to fuel economy, cost, component dimensioning etc. Experience show that even modest customer adaptation can save around 20% of fuel cost. A key motivator for this work is that wheel loader manufacturers in general does not have full information about customer usage of the machine and the main objective here is to develop an algorithm that automatically, using only production sensors, extracts information about the usage of a machine at a specific customer site. Two main challenges are that sensors are not located with respect to this task and the significant usage disturbances that typically occur during operation. The proposed solution is a robust method, based on a mix of techniques using basic signal processing, state automaton techniques, and parameter estimation algorithms. A key property of the method is the method of combining, individually very simple, basic techniques in a scheme where robustness are introduced. The approach is evaluated on measured data of a wheel loader loading gravel and shot rock.

A good placement of sensors is crucial to get good performance in detecting and isolating faults. Here, the sensor placement problem is cast as a minimal cost optimization problem. Previous works have considered this problem with qualitative detectability and isolability specifications. A key contribution here is that quantified detectability and isolability performance is considered in the optimization formulation. The search space for the posed optimization problem is exponential in size, and to handle complexity a greedy optimization algorithm that compute optimal sensor positions is proposed. Two examples illustrate how the optimal solution depends on the required quantified diagnosability performance and the results are compared to the solutions using a deterministic method.

An important step in fault detection and isolation is residual evaluation where residuals, signals ideally zero in the no-fault case, are evaluated with the aim to detect changes in their behavior caused by faults. Generally, residuals deviate from zero even in the no-fault case and their probability distributions exhibit non-stationary features due to, e.g., modeling errors, measurement noise, and different operating conditions. To handle these issues, this paper proposes a data-driven approach to residual evaluation based on an explicit comparison of the residual distribution estimated on-line and a no-fault distribution, estimated off-line using training data. The comparison is done within the framework of statistical hypothesis testing. With the Generalized Likelihood Ratio test statistic as starting point, a more powerful and computational efficient test statistic is derived by a properly chosen approximation to one of the emerging likelihood maximization problems. The proposed approach is evaluated with measurement data on a residual for diagnosis of the gas-flow system of a Scania truck diesel engine. The proposed test statistic performs well, small faults can for example be reliable detected in cases where regular methods based on constant thresholding fail.

A theory is developed for quantifying fault detectability and fault isolability properties of time discrete linear dynamic models. Based on the model, a stochastic characterization of system behavior in different fault modes is defined and a general measure, called distinguishability, based on the Kullback-Leibler information, is used to quantify the difference between the modes. An analysis of distinguishability as a function of the number of observations is discussed. This measure is also shown to be closely related to the fault to noise ratios in residual generators. Further, the distinguishability of the model is shown to give upper limits of the fault to noise ratios of residual generators.

A theory is developed for quantifying fault detectability and fault isolability properties of static linear stochastic models. Based on the model, a stochastic characterization of system behavior in different fault modes is defined and a general measure, based on the Kullback-Leibler information, is proposed to quantify the difference between the modes. This measure, called distinguishability, of the model is shown to give sharp upper limits of the fault to noise ratios of residual generators. Finally, a case-study of a diesel engine model shows how the general framework can be applied to a dynamic and nonlinear model.

This work is focused on structural approaches to studying diagnosability properties given a system model taking into account, both simultaneously or separately, integral and differential causal interpretations for differential constraints. We develop a model characterization and corresponding algorithms, for studying system diagnosability using a structural decomposition that avoids generating the full set of system ARRs. Simultaneous application of integral and differential causal interpretations for differential constraints results in a mixed causality interpretation for the system. The added power of mixed causality is demonstrated using a case study. Finally, we summarize our work and provide a discussion of the advantages of mixed causality over just derivative or just integral causality. © 2011 IFAC.

Structural methods have previously been used to perform isolability analysis and finding testable sub-models, so called Minimal Structurally Overdetermined (MSO) sets, Analytical Redundancy Relations (ARR), or Possible Conflicts (PC). The number of MSO sets grows exponentially in the degree of redundancy making the task of computing MSO sets intractable for systems with high degree of redundancy. This paper describes an efficient graph-theoretical algorithm for computing a similar, but smaller, set of testable submodels called Test Equation Supports (TES). A key difference, compared to an MSO based approach, is that the influence of faults is taken into account and the resulting number of testable models as well as the computational complexity of finding them can be reduced significantly without reducing the possible diagnosis performance. It is shown that the TESs in a direct way characterize the complete multiple fault isolability property of a model and thus extends previous structural approaches from the single-fault case.