Zinc aluminogallate, Zn(AlxGa1−x)2O4 (ZAGO), a single-phase spinel structure, offers considerable potential for high-performance electronic devices due to its expansive compositional miscibility range between aluminum (Al) and gallium (Ga). Direct growth of high-quality ZAGO epilayers however remains problematic due to the high volatility of zinc (Zn). This work highlights a novel synthesis process for high-quality epitaxial quaternary ZAGO thin films on sapphire substrates, achieved through thermal annealing of a ZnGa2O4 (ZGO) epilayer on sapphire in an ambient air setting. In-situ annealing x-ray diffraction measurements show that the incorporation of Al in the ZGO epilayer commenced at 850 °C. The Al content (x) in ZAGO epilayer gradually increased up to around 0.45 as the annealing temperature was raised to 1100 °C, which was confirmed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy. X-ray rocking curve measurement revealed a small full width at half maximum value of 0.72 °, indicating the crystal quality preservation of the ZAGO epilayer with a high Al content. However, an epitaxial intermediate �–(AlxGa1−x)2O3 layer (� - AGO) was formed between the ZAGO and sapphire substrate. This is believed to be a consequence of the interdiffusion of Al and Ga between the ZGO thin film and sapphire substrate. Using density functional theory, the substitution cost of Ga in sapphire was determined to be about 0.5 eV lower than substitution cost of Al in ZGO. Motivated by this energetically favorable substitution, a formation mechanism of the ZAGO and AGO layers was proposed. Spectroscopic ellipsometry studies revealed an increase in total thickness of the film from 105.07 nm (ZGO) to 147.97 nm (ZAGO/AGO) after annealing to 1100 °C, which were corroborated using TEM. Furthermore, an observed increase in the direct (indirect) optical bandgap from 5.06 eV (4.7 eV) to 5.72 eV (5.45 eV) with an increasing Al content in the ZAGO layer further underpins the formation of a quaternary ZAGO alloy with a tunable composition.

Depending on processing methods and conditions, cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) films exhibit linear birefringence or selective Bragg reflection. The latter means reflection of light with left-handed circular polarization (LCP) due to CNC in a helicoidal microstructure of the same handedness. Herein, glass-supported CNC/polyethylene glycol (CNC/PEG) composite films with PEG concentrations in the range of 0-30% w/w with selective Bragg reflection at wavelengths from 440 to 550 nm are prepared. A modular device comprised of a dip-coated birefringent CNC-glass sample sandwiched between two CNC/PEG-glass samples shows different responses to light with LCP and to light with right-handed circular polarization (RCP). The device suppresses selective Bragg reflection from the rear (front) CNC/PEG sample for incident light with LCP (RCP), even when the birefringent film does not meet the condition for a halfwave plate. This behavior resembles the performance of optical diodes for circular polarization. Polarization properties of composite films and optical diodes in terms of degree of polarization and ellipticity are discussed within the Stokes-Mueller formalism. Electromagnetic simulations of Mueller matrices reveal the equivalence of modular and in-tandem film approaches of optical diodes. The handedness of circular polarization of light is reversed by a modular device comprised of a dip-coated birefringent cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) film sandwiched by two CNC/polyethylene glycol composite films. Asymmetric forward and backward propagation of circular propagation resembles an optical diode at wavelengths of selective Bragg reflection.image (c) 2023 WILEY-VCH GmbH

Important properties for camouflage materials can be summarized in six criteria: (1) spectrally selective reflectance, (2) low gloss, (3) low degree of polarization, (4) low infrared emissivity, (5) non-destructive effect on radar properties and (6) color adaptivity. We have studied a collection of natural materials for potential use as camouflage surfaces for the arctic region. The four first camouflage criteria are analyzed using spectrometry, scatterometry and spectroscopic ellipsometry techniques. The materials involved in the study are diffuse white nature-inspired surfaces: Cuticles of the beetle Cyphochilus insulanus, and foams of freeze-casted cellulose nanofibrils. We present data that partly fulfills the addressed camouflage criteria. An adequate reflectance is achieved in the spectral range of 400 - 1600 nm for both samples. Scattering data show that near-Lambertian properties are achieved at 633 nm for both surfaces but at 1550 nm for only the beetle cuticle. The degree of polarization is low for unpolarized light incident near the surface normal for both surfaces.

Electronic grade ZnGa2O4 epitaxial thin films were grown on c-plane sapphire substrates by metal-organic chemical vapor deposition and investigated using spectroscopic ellipsometry. Their thickness, roughness and optical properties were determined using a Multiple Sample Analysis based approach by the regression analysis of optical model and measured data. These samples were then compared to samples which had undergone ion etching, and it was observed that etching time up to four minutes had no discernible impact on its optical properties. Line shape analysis of resulting absorption coefficient dispersion revealed that ZnGa(2)O(4 )exhibited both direct and indirect interband transitions. The modified Cody formalism was employed to determine their optical bandgaps. These values were found to be in good agreement with values obtained using other popular bandgap extrapolation procedures. Published by Optica Publishing Group under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. Further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the published articles title, journal citation, and DOI.

Since the introduction of attenuated total reflection (ATR) spectroscopy for the characterization of materials, attempts have been made to relate the measured reflectivity (R) to the absorption coefficient (alpha) of the absorbing material of interest. The common approach is limited to the low absorption case under the assumption R similar to exp(-alpha d(e)), where d(e) is an effective thickness, which is evaluated for the lossless case. In this Letter, a more detailed derivation leads to R = exp(-beta d(p)/2), enabling the definition of an ATR-effective absorption coefficient beta and the penetration depth d(p) of the electric field in the absorbing material. It is found that beta similar to 4 pi epsilon(2)/lambda, where epsilon(2) is the imaginary part of the complex dielectric function of the absorbing material, and lambda is the wavelength. An alternative formulation is R = exp(-alpha d(ef)), where d(ef) is a generalized effective thickness for arbitrary strength of absorption which reduces to d(e) in the low absorption limit. The experimental data for water, the biopolymer chitosan, and soda-lime glass prove the reliability of the ATR-effective absorption coefficient in the infrared range. (C) 2021 Optical Society of America

Featured Application The analysis of the transmission of Mueller matrices facilitates studies of optical activity in samples that also exhibit linear anisotropy and depolarization and may have a multilayered structure. Such studies are important for the development of applications in chiroptics. Optical chirality, in terms of circular birefringence and circular dichroism, is described by its electromagnetic and magnetoelectric material tensors, and the corresponding optical activity contributes to the Mueller matrix. Here, spectroscopic ellipsometry in the spectral range 210-1690 nm is used to address chiral phenomena by measuring Mueller matrices in transmission. Three approaches to determine chirality parameters are discussed. In the first approach, applicable in the absence of linear polarization effects, circular birefringence and circular dichroism are evaluated directly from elements of a Mueller matrix. In the second method, differential decomposition is employed, which allows for the unique separation of chirality parameters from linear anisotropic parameters as well as from depolarization provided that the sample is homogeneous along the optical path. Finally, electromagnetic modeling using the Tellegen constitutive relations is presented. The last method also allows structural effects to be included. The three methods to quantify optical chirality are demonstrated for selected materials, including sugar solutions, alpha-quartz, liquid crystals, beetle cuticle, and films of cellulose nanocrystals.

Featured Application Chiral films are susceptible to changes in humidity enabling humidity detectors. They can also be used in optical devices due to their interesting polarization properties. Evaporation-induced-self-assembly is widely used to produce chiral cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) free-standing films reflecting left-handed polarized light. Research on supported chiral CNC films is rather scarce. The reflection and/or transmission of unpolarized light are the most common optical techniques used to characterize the selective reflection of CNC films whereas the use of techniques to quantify chiral properties is limited. Here, the fabrication of chiral CNC films supported on glass substrates by a shear-coating method, as well as a full characterization of their polarization properties, are reported. Optical chirality is evidenced in films, showing a brilliant blue structural color when viewed through a left-handed polarizer and darkness through a right-handed polarizer. Mueller-matrix data in the reflection and transmission modes are used to quantitatively characterize the structural origin of color in the films. The quantification of the linear and circular birefringence, as well as circular dichroism, is performed by analytical inversion of the Mueller matrix data in the transmission mode and regression analysis using Tellegen constitutive equations. The equivalence of the two methods to quantify the structural chirality in CNC films is demonstrated. The swelling of films in water and kinetics during drying is studied by reflection spectroscopy.

Nanocelluloses are very attractive materials for creating structured films with unique optical properties using different preparation techniques. Evaporation-induced self-assembly of cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) aqueous suspensions produces iridescent films with selective circular Bragg reflection. Blade coating of sonicated CNC suspensions leads to birefringent CNC films. In this work, fabrication of both birefringent and chiral films from non-sonicated CNC suspensions using a shear-coating method is studied. Polarization optical microscopy and steady-state viscosity profiles show that non-sonicated CNC suspensions (concentration of 6.5 wt%) evolve with storage time from a gel-like shear-thinning fluid to a mixture of isotropic and chiral nematic liquid crystalline phases. Shear-coated films prepared from non-sonicated fresh CNC suspensions are birefringent, whereas films prepared from suspensions stored several weeks show reflection of left-handed polarized light. Quantification of linear and circular birefringence as well circular dichroism in the films is achieved by using a Mueller matrix formalism.

Several beetle species in the Scarabaeoidea superfamily reflect left-handed polarized light due to a circular Bragg structure in their cuticle. The right-handed polarized light is transmitted. The objective here is to evaluate cuticle chiral properties in an effective medium approach using transmission Mueller matrices assuming the cuticle to be a bianisotropic continuum. Both differential decomposition and nonlinear regression were used in the spectral range of 500-1690nm. The former method provides the sample cumulated birefringence and dichroic optical properties and is model-free but requires a homogeneous sample. The materials chirality is deduced from the circular birefringence and circular dichroic spectra obtained. The regression method requires dispersion models for the optical functions but can also be used in more complex structures including multilayered and graded media. It delivers the material properties in terms of model functions of materials permittivity and chirality. The two methods show excellent agreement for the complex-valued chirality spectrum of the cuticle.

Glancing angle deposition (GLAD) of AlN nanostructures was performed at room temperature by reactive magnetron sputtering in a mixed gas atmosphere of Ar and N-2. The growth behavior of nanostructures shows strong dependence on the total working pressure and angle of incoming flux. In GLAD configuration, the morphology changed from coalesced, vertical nanocolumns with faceted terminations to highly inclined, fan-like, layered nanostructures (up to 38 degrees); while column lengths decreased from around 1743 to 1068 nm with decreasing pressure from 10 to 1.5 mTorr, respectively. This indicates a change in the dominant growth mechanism from ambient flux dependent deposition to directional ballistic shadowing deposition with decreasing working pressures, which is associated with the change of energy and incident angle of incoming reactive species. These results were corroborated using simulation of metal transport (SiMTra) simulations performed at similar working pressures using Ar and N separately, which showed the average particle energy and average angle of incidence decreased while the total average scattering angle of the metal flux arriving at substrate increased with increasing working pressures. Observing the crystalline orientation of GLAD deposited wurtzite AlN nanocolumns using X-ray diffraction (XRD), pole-figure measurements revealedc-axis growth towards the direction of incoming flux and a transition from fiber-like to biaxial texture took place with increasing working pressures. Under normal deposition conditions, AlN layer morphology changed from {0001} to {10 (1) over bar1} with increasing working pressure because of kinetic energy-driven growth.

Ramie is a plant whose fibers are used in fabrics. Ramie films are prepared by hot pressing and studied with transmission Mueller-matrix ellipsometry, which provides a complete description of polarizing and depolarizing sample properties. Symmetries of the Mueller matrices imply that the ramie films are linearly birefringent and act as waveplates. The linear birefringence is quantified by the differential decomposition of the Mueller matrices and the materials birefringence is found to be of the order of 0.05-0.08 with small dispersion in the visible spectral range. The films exhibit depolarization, which is quantified in terms of the depolarization index and varies from 0.9 in the infrared to 0.25 in the ultraviolet range. The deep understanding of ramie films polarization properties will pave the way for applications in optical and photonic devices.

Graded pitch profiles are found in structurally chiral materials like cholesteric liquid crystals (CLC) and in the cuticle of some scarab beetles. In most cases, the pitch profile is determined from electron microscopy techniques. Recently, it was shown that approximate pitch profiles in the cuticle of scarab beetles can be retrieved through an analysis of the spectral dependence of maxima and minima in normalized Mueller-matrix data. The analysis relies on basic concepts of interference in thin films, properties of optical modes in chiral systems, and the condition for circular Bragg reflection. In this work, the consistency of the procedure is demonstrated by analysis of normalized Mueller matrices of circular Bragg reflectors calculated for three predefined pitch profiles with (1) a stepwise decrease, (2) a stepwise increase and, (3) an exponential increase. The procedure does not require knowledge of the full Mueller matrix and can be used for non-destructive analysis of pitch in CLC, beetle cuticle and similar structures.

Transparent films of cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) are prepared by dip-coating on glass substrates from aqueous suspensions of hydrolyzed filter paper. Dragging forces acting during films deposition promote a preferential alignment of the rod-shaped CNC. Films that are 2.8 and 6.0 mu m in thickness show retardance effects, as evidenced by placing them between a linearly polarized light source and a linear polarizer sheet in the extinction configuration. Transmission Mueller matrix spectroscopic ellipsometry measurements at normal incidence as a function of sample rotation were used to characterize polarization properties. A differential decomposition of the Mueller matrix reveals linear birefringence as the unique polarization parameter. These results show a promising way for obtaining CNC birefringent films by a simple and controllable method.

Circular Bragg reflectors have the ability of reflecting the cohanded circular-polarization mode of the inherent helicoidal structures. Cuticles of some plants and beetles are examples of natural circular Bragg reflectors. In many cases, the period or pitch of the helicoidal structure shows spatial variation across the cuticle (pitch profile). Among scarab beetles, the special architecture in the cuticle of the Chrysina resplendens comprising a birefringent layer sandwiched between two helicoidal layers reflects both right- and left-handed circular-polarization states. In this work, the modeling of Mueller-matrix data is applied to investigate polarization properties of this exceptional structure by using pitch profile and optical functions reported in the literature. Reflectance spectra for circular-polarization states are explained in terms of the phase shift introduced by the birefringent layer in a phasor plot. The azimuth-dependent polarization properties are investigated at oblique incidence for unpolarized light. (c) 2019 Author(s). All article content, except where otherwise noted, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Scarab beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) can exhibit striking colours produced by pigments and/or nanostructures. The latter include helicoidal (Bouligand) structures that can generate circularly polarized light. These have a cryptic evolutionary history in part because fossil examples are unknown. This suggests either a real biological signal, i.e. that Bouligand structures did not evolve until recently, or a taphonomic signal, i.e. that conditions during the fossilization process were not conducive to their preservation. We address this issue by experimentally degrading circularly polarizing cuticle of modern scarab beetles to test the relative roles of decay, maturation and taxonomy in controlling preservation. The results reveal that Bouligand structures have the potential to survive fossilization, but preservation is controlled by taxonomy and the diagenetic history of specimens. Further, cuticle of specific genus (Chrysina) is particularly decay-prone in alkaline conditions; this may relate to the presence of certain compounds, e. g. uric acid, in the cuticle of these taxa.

The cuticle of the beetle Chrysina chrysargyrea reflects left-handed polarized light in the broad spectral range from 340 to 1000 nm. Interference oscillations in the experimental Mueller-matrix spectroscopic ellipsometry data reveal that transparent materials comprise the cuticle. A spectral analysis of the interference oscillations makes evident that the pitch profile across the cuticle is graded. The graded pitch and effective refractive indices are determined through non-linear regression analysis of the experimental Mueller matrix by using a cuticle model based on twisted biaxial dielectric slices. Non-uniformity in cuticle thickness as well as in pitch profile near the cuticle surface account for depolarizance of the Mueller matrix. Transmission electron microscopy supports the reliability of the results.

The influence of structural configurations of indium aluminum nitride (InA1N) nanospirals, grown by reactive magnetron sputter epitaxy, on the transformation of light polarization are investigated in terms of varying structural chirality, growth temperatures, titanium nitride (TiN) seed (buffer) layer thickness, nanospiral thickness, and pitch. The handedness of reflected circularly polarized light in the ultraviolet-visible region corresponding to the chirality of nanospirals is demonstrated. A high degree of circular polarization (P-c) value of 0.75 is obtained from a sample consisting of 1.2 mu m InA1N nanospirals grown at 650 degrees C. A film-like structure is formed at temperatures lower than 450 degrees C. At growth temperatures higher than 750 degrees C, less than 0.1 In-content is incorporated into the InA1N nanospirals. Both cases reveal very low P-c-A red shift of wavelength at P-c peak is found with increasing nanospiral pitch in the range of 200-300 nm. The P-c decreases to 0.37 for two-turn nanospirals with total length of 0.7 mu m, attributed to insufficient constructive interference. A branch-like structure appears on the surface when the nanospirals are grown longer than 1.2 mu m, which yields a low P-c around 0.5, caused by the excessive scattering of incident light.

Chiral nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) free-standing films were prepared through slow evaporation of aqueous suspensions of cellulose nanocrystals in a nematic chiral liquid crystal phase. Mueller matrix (MM) spectroscopic ellipsometry is used to study the polarization and depolarization properties of the chiral films. In the reflection mode, the MM is similar to the matrices reported for the cuticle of some beetles reflecting near circular left-handed polarized light in the visible range. The polarization properties of light transmitted at normal incidence for different polarization states of incident light are discussed. By using a differential decomposition of the MM, the structural circular birefringence and dichroism of a NCC chiral film are evaluated.

Helicoidal structures of lamellae of nanofibrils constitute the cuticle of some scarab beetle; with iridescent metallic-like shine reflecting left-handed polarized light. The spectral and polarization properties of the reflected light depend on the pitch of the helicoidal structures, dispersion of effective refractive indices and thicknesses of layers in the cuticle. By modelling the outer exocuticle of the scarab beetle Cotinis mutabilis as a stack of continuously twisted biaxial slices of transparent materials, we extract optical and structural parameters by nonlinear regression analysis of variable-angle Mueller-matrix spectroscopic data. Inhomogeneities in the beetle cuticle produce depolarization with non-uniformity in cuticle thickness as the dominant effect. The pitch across the cuticle of C. mutabilis decreased with depth in a two-level profile from 380 to 335 nm and from 390 to 361 nm in greenish and reddish specimens, respectively, whereas in a yellowish specimen, the pitch decreased with depth in a three-level profile from 388 to 326 nm.

The first part of this chapter gives a brief description of the polarizing environment we are living in and the possibilities for some animals to detect this polarization. This is followed by a presentation of how animals and plants generate polarized light, usually through reflection from micro- and nanostructures. Special attention is made to scarab beetles reflecting light with a high degree of circular polarization. The use of Mueller matrix spectroscopic ellipsometry to obtain optical and structural properties of the beetle cuticle are demonstrated. Finally some comments on the biological aspects of polarization are made. 

Light interaction with a columnar structure of InxAl1-xN where each column is a layered periodic helical medium with laterally graded refractive index is considered. It is demonstrated that such a columnar structure can be presented as a stack of layers with a gradient of the refractive index. To calculate reflectance in the proposed model, the 2 x 2 characteristic matrix method adopted for a gradient index medium was applied. The influence of the refractive indices (including absorption), parameters of the twisting, and thickness of the periodic structure on reflectance is studied. Cases of normal and oblique incident light are considered. The presented medium is a one-dimensional photonic crystal that can be utilized in many devices for light manipulation. (C) 2017 Published by Elsevier B.V.

The cuticle of the scarab beetle Cotinis mutabilis reflects left-handed polarized light indicating the presence of a helicoidal structure. Different in-depth pitches in the cuticle are corroborated by optical microscopy images of the cuticle which originally is yellowish or reddish but becomes greenish after gently scratching its top side. Using the Mueller-matrix formalism the degree of polarization (total and circular) of reflected light is determined for unpolarized incident light. The effects of the finite thickness of the cuticle on the broadening and strength of the selective Bragg reflection are discussed on the basis of dispersion relations for optical modes in helicoidal structures and simulated spectra. (C) 2017 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Some beetles of the family Scarabaeidae produce brilliant metallic-looking colors by their pure dielectric exoskeletons and reflect light with a high degree of circular polarization. In the present work, we discuss three models for simultaneously describing scattering, spectral, and polarization characteristics of scarab beetles. Each model consists of three slabs: an outer thin epicuticle, an exocuticle having a helicoidal structure, and a thick uniform slightly absorbing endocuticle. Scattering features are defined by rough interfaces of the epicuticle and/or nonuniformities of the exocuticle. As an example, a slightly modified model of an earlier study of Chrysina aurata is considered. The modification is aimed at including surface and volume nonuniformities that affect not only spectral and polarization properties but also scattering. Another example of using the proposed models is based on the analysis of image formations of a specimen of the species Mimela chinensis, which was studied in a polarizing microscope at different magnifications. The results show that the proposed models can be applied for explanation of light interaction with the exoskeletons of scarab beetles. (C) 2017 Optical Society of America

We predict scattering cancellation in diffusive transport of acoustics waves propagating through multiple scattering media in the stationary limit. This would enable sensing of diffusive sound without disrupting the exterior acoustic field. We present design schemes for making spherical or cylindrical core-shell structures with multiple layers, characterized by homogenous and isotropic diffusion coefficients, neutral to an arbitrary applied multipole field. The double-layered sphere is found to support transparency to two concurrent multipole fields and unique cloaking solutions of arbitrary multipole order. One extra degree of freedom is provided by every layer added to the core-shell structure which may be exploited with our iterative formula for effective diffusivity for cloaking of additional field terms. From this we pass over to the long wavelength limit of ballistic sound and provide formulas for effective mass densities of multi-layered structures in spherical and cylindrical geometries with respect to multipole pressure fields. (C) 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

A method for designing magnetic shields that do not perturb applied multipole fields in the static regime is developed. Cylindrical core-shell structures with two layers characterized by homogeneous isotropic permeabilities are found to support neutral shielding of multipole fields and unique cloaking solutions of arbitrary multipole order. An extra degree of freedom is provided by every layer added to the structure which may be exploited with an effective design formula for cloaking of additional field terms. The theory is illustrated with numerical simulations.

The use of Mueller matrices for studies of polarizing properties and cuticle structure of scarab beetles are partly reviewed. Specifically we show how the polarization of the reflected light can be quantified in terms of degree of polarization and ellipticity. It is also shown that sum decomposition of Mueller matrices reveals cuticle reflection characteristics in different spectral regions, e.g. in terms of mirrors and circular polarizers. With a differential decomposition of cuticle transmission Mueller matrices, we determine the spectral variation in the fundamental optical properties circular birefringence and dichroism. (C) 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Birefringent chitin films were prepared by a dipping technique from aqueous suspensions of chitin nanocrystals in a nematic liquid crystal phase. In the films, chitin nanocrystals are preferentially oriented along the withdrawal direction. Normal incidence transmission Mueller-matrix (M) spectroscopic ellipsometry measurements as a function of sample rotation were used to investigate the optical birefringence in the spectral range 0.73 to 5 eV. Analysis of eigenvalues and depolarization data reveal that the Mueller matrix corresponds to a pure retarder for photon energies below 4 eV and is depolarizing in the range 4 to 5 eV. By modeling the chitin film as a slab with in-plane anisotropy the birefringence was determined. The determination of birefringence was extended to include the range of 4 to 5 eV by a differential decomposition of M. (C) 2016 Optical Society of America

The optical properties of several scarab beetles have been previously studied but few attempts have been made to compare beetles in the same genus. To determine whether there is any relation between specimens of the same genus, we have studied and classified seven species from the Chrysina genus. The polarization properties were analyzed with Mueller-matrix spectroscopic ellipsometry and the structural characteristics with optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Most of the Chrysina beetles are green colored or have a metallic look (gold or silver). The results show that the green-colored beetles polarize reflected light mainly at off-specular angles. The gold-colored beetles polarize light left-handed near circular at specular reflection. The structure of the exoskeleton is a stack of layers that form a cusplike structure in the green beetles whereas the layers are parallel to the surface in the case of the gold-colored beetles. The beetle C. gloriosa is green with gold-colored stripes along the elytras and exhibits both types of effects. The results indicate that Chrysina beetles can be classified according to these two major polarization properties.

An approach for simulation of light scattering from beetles exhibiting structural colors originating from periodic helicoidal structures is presented. Slight irregularities of the periodic structure in the exoskeleton of the beetles are considered as a major cause of light scattering. Two sources of scattering are taken into account: surface roughness and volume non-uniformity. The Kirchhoff approximation is applied to simulate the effect of surface roughness. To describe volume non-uniformity, the whole structure is modeled as a set of domains distributed in space in different orientations. Each domain is modeled as an ideal uniformly twisted uniaxial medium and differs from each other by the pitch. Distributions of the domain parameters are assumed to be Gaussian. The analysis is performed using the Mueller matrix formalism which, in addition to spectral and spatial characteristics, also provides polarization properties of the scattered light. (C) 2016 Optical Society of America

Transmission Mueller-matrix spectroscopic ellipsometry is applied to the cuticle of the beetle Cetonia aurata in the spectral range 300-1000 nm. The cuticle is optically reciprocal and exhibits circular Bragg filter features for green light. By using differential decomposition of the Mueller matrix, the circular and linear birefringence as well as dichroism of the beetle cuticle are quantified. A maximum value of structural optical activity of 560 degrees/mm is found. (C) 2016 Optical Society of America

In this report we present studies on beetles of the Scarabaeidae family. The selected beetles show brilliant colors and in addition interesting polarization features. Mueller matrices of such beetles are of large interest to explore for biomimetics and for the understanding of the biological relevance of the observed polarization phenomena. Several species of the Scarabaeidae family have been studied by Hodgkinson, Goldstein  and our group to mention some. Ellipticity, degree of polarization and other derived parameters have been reported and Arwin et al. also did optical modeling to determine structural parameters of the scutellum part of the exoskeleton of Cetonia aurata. Mueller matrices are very rich in information about the sample properties and can also be analyzed by addressing depolarization. Cloude showed that a depolarizing Mueller matrix can be represented by a sum of up to four non-depolarizing Mueller matrices weighted by the eigenvalues of the covariance matrix of the Mueller matrix. These eigenvalues are all positive for a physically realizable Mueller matrix and this, so called sum decomposition can be used to filter matrices and obtain a measure of experimental fidelity. The result of the decomposition can also be used to describe a Mueller matrix as a set of basic optical elements having direct physical meaning, such as polarizers and retarders. Pioneering work on decomposition of Mueller-matrix images, including studies of beetles, was performed by Ossikovski et al. We have also previously demonstrated this with Cloude as well as regression decomposition of Mueller matrix spectra and images measured at near-normal incidence on C. aurata. Using Cloude decomposition we found that the experimentally determined Mueller matrix of C. aurata decomposes into a set of a mirror and a circular polarizer. Those results were then the basis for a more stable regression decomposition where the result was confirmed.

Chirality, tailored by external morphology and internal composition, has been realized by controlled curved-lattice epitaxial growth (CLEG) of uniform coatings of single-crystalline In_xAl_1-xN nanospirals. The nanospirals are formed by sequentially stacking segments of curved nanorods on top of each other, where each segment is incrementally rotated around the spiral axis. By controlling the growth rate, segment length, rotation direction, and incremental rotation angle, spirals are tailored to predetermined handedness, pitch, and height.  The curved morphology of the segments is a result of a lateral compositional gradient across the segments while maintaining a preferred crystallographic growth direction, implying a lateral gradient in optical properties as well. Left- and right-handed nanospirals, tailored with 5 periods of 200 nm pitch, as confirmed by scanning electron microscopy, exhibit uniform spiral diameters of ~80 nm (local segment diameters of ~60 nm) with tapered hexagonal tips.  High resolution electron microscopy, in combination with nanoprobe energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and valence electron energy loss spectroscopy, show that individual nanospirals consist of an In-rich core with ~15 nm-diameter hexagonal cross-section, comprised of curved basal planes. The core is surrounded by an Al-rich shell with a thickness asymmetry spiraling along the core. The ensemble nanospirals, across the 1 cm² wafers, show high in-plane ordering with respect to shape, crystalline orientation, and direction of compositional gradient. Mueller matrix spectroscopic ellipsometry shows that the tailored chirality is manifested in the polarization state of light reflected off the CLEG nanospiral-coated wafers. In that, the polarization state is shown to be dependent on the handedness of the nanospirals and the wavelength of the incident light in the ultraviolet-visible region.

We use angle-dependent Mueller-matrix spectroscopic ellipsometry (MMSE) to determine Mueller matrices of Scarabaeidae beetles which show fascinating reflection properties due to structural phenomena in the exocuticle which are often depolarizing. It has been shown by Cloude [1] that a depolarizing matrix can be decomposed into a sum of up to four non-depolarizing matrices according to M= aM­­₁+bM₂+cM₃+dM₄, where a, b, c and d are eigenvalues of the covariance matrix of M. Using the same eigenvalues the matrices M_i can be calculated. This method provides the full solution to the decomposition with both the non-depolarizing matrices and the weight of each of them in the sum.

An alternative to Cloude decomposition is regression decomposition. Here any Mueller matrix can be decomposed into a set of matrices M_i which are specified beforehand. Whereas in Cloude decomposition the only constraint on the matrices is that they are physically realizable non-depolarizing Mueller matrices, we can now limit the constraint and only use Mueller matrices representing pure optical devices having direct physical meaning, such as polarizers, retarders, etc. This leaves a, b, c, d as fit parameters to minimize the Frobenius norm M^exp -M^reg where M^exp is the experimentally determined Mueller matrix to be decomposed and M^reg is the sum of all M_i. Depending on M^exp an appropriate choice of M^reg matrices has to be made and different values of a, b, c and d are obtained through regression analysis.

We have previously shown that regression decomposition can be used to show that the Mueller matrix of Cetonia aurata can be decomposed into a sum of a circular polarizer and a mirror [2]. Here we expand the analysis to include angle-resolved spectral Mueller matrices, and also include more species of Scarabaeidae beetles.

One effect of the decomposition is that when depolarization is caused by an inhomogeneous sample with regions of different optical properties the Mueller matrices of the different regions can be retrieved under certain conditions. Regression decomposition also has potential to be a classification tool for biological samples where a set of standard matrices are used in the decomposition and the parameters a, b, c, d are used to quantify the polarizing properties of the sample.

[1] Cloude S.R. 1989. Conditions for the physical realisability of matrix operators in polarimetry. Proc. SPIE 1166, Polarization Considerations for Optical Systems II, pp. 177-185

[2] Arwin H, Magnusson R, Garcia-Caurel E, Fallet C, Järrendahl K, De Martino A, Ossikovski R, 2015. Sum decomposition of Mueller-matrix images and spectra of beetle cuticles. Opt. Express, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 1951–1966

A Mueller matrix of a sample can be used to determine the polarization of  reflected light  for  incident light with arbitrary polarization. The polarization can be quantified  in terms of ellipticity, polarization azimuth and degree of polarization. We apply spectroscopic Mueller-matrix ellipsometry at multiple angles of incidence  to study the cuticle of beetles and derive  polarization features for incident unpolarized light.  In particular we address chiral phenomena in scarab beetles,  the origin of their structural colors and the observed high degree of circular polarization is discussed. Results from beetles in the Scarabaeidae subfamilies Cetoniinae and Rutelinae are presented including specimens with broad-band silver- or gold-like colors with metallic shine as well as specimens with narrow-band green or red reflectors. The variation of polarization with angle of incidence and occurrence of both left-handed and right-handed polarization from a single species are presented. We also use Mueller-matrix spectra in electromagnetic modeling and show how to determine structural parameters including cuticle layer thicknesses and optical properties. Interference oscillations in the observed spectra are due to allowed optical modes and we show how to develop a structural model of a cuticle based on this effect. Sum decomposition of  Mueller matrices measured on a depolarizing cuticle of a beetle is briefly discussed.

The scarab beetle Cetonia aurata is known to reflect light with brilliant colors and a high degree of circular polarization. Both color and polarization effects originate from the beetles exoskeleton and have been attributed to a Bragg reflection of the incident light due to a twisted laminar structure. Our strategy for mimicking the optical properties of the Cetonia aurata was therefore to design and fabricate transparent, chiral films. A series of films with tailored transparent structures of helicoidal In_xAl_1-xN nanorods were grown on sapphire substrates using UHV magnetron sputtering. The value of x is tailored to gradually decrease from one side to the other in each nanorod normal to its growth direction. This introduces an in-plane anisotropy with different refractive indices in the direction of the gradient and perpendicular to it. By rotating the sample during film growth the in-plane optical axis will be rotated from bottom to top and thereby creating a chiral film. Based on Muellermatrix ellipsometry, optical modeling has been done suggesting that both the exoskeleton of Cetonia aurata and our artificial material can be modeled by an anisotropic film made up of a stack of thin layers, each one with its in-plane optical axis slightly rotated with respect to the previous layer. Simulations based on the optical modeling were used to investigate how pitch and thickness of the film together with the optical properties of the constitutive materials affects the width and spectral position of the Bragg reflection band.

The astonishing colors exhibited by many birds, insects and other creatures have inspired the development of materials and structures for optical biomimetics. Particularly, aqueous suspensions of cellulose nanocrystals self-assembly in a chiral nematic liquid crystalline phase producing nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) chiral films after slow evaporation [1] that mimic the left-handed helicoidal arrangement of chitin-protein fibrils found in some beetle cuticles. Owing to the helical structure, left-handed polarized light is selectively reflected from beetle cuticles and NCC chiral films at normal incidence in a spectral band centered at wavelength l₀=nL where n is the in-plane average refractive index and L the helix pitch.

In this work we report the normalized Mueller matrix (M) of NCC free-standing chiral films measured with a dual rotating compensator ellipsometer (J. A. Woollam Co., Inc.) in the wavelength (l) range  250-1000 nm. Measurements performed on NCC films in reflection at angles of incidence (q) between 20 and 75° are shown in the contour map in Fig. 1 and display the same structure as those found in M of beetle cuticles [2]. At q=20° the band of selective reflection of left-handed polarized light (m₄₁=m₁₄<0) is centered at 520 nm. However, NCC chiral films are characterized by a mosaic-like texture as can be observed in the optical microscopy image inserted on the right panel of Fig. 1. The multidomain texture indicates both random helix direction and pitch distribution. Therefore, measurements in different places show selective reflection bands with different spectral characteristics. On the other hand, the transmission of right-handed polarized light (m₄₁=m₁₄>0) is confirmed from measurements at normal incidence, as observed in the right panel of Fig. 1. Other properties of the transmitted light like degree of polarization, ellipticity, and azimuth are determined for incident unpolarized as well as for different polarizations of incident light. Also, circular dichroism and optical rotation of NCC chiral films are evaluated.

References

[1] J. A. Kelly et al, Acc. Chem. Res. 47 (2014) 1088−1096.

[2] E. Muñoz-Pineda et al, Thin Solid Films (2014) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tsf.2013.11.144

Optical properties of natural photonic structures can inspire material developments in diversified areas, such as the spectral design of surfaces for camouflage. Here, reflectance, scattering, and polarization properties of the cuticle of the scarab beetle Cyphochilus insulanus are studied with spectral directional hemispherical reflectance, bidirectional reflection distribution function (BRDF) measurements, and Mueller-matrix spectroscopic ellipsometry (MMSE). At normal incidence, a reflectance (0.6–0.75) is found in the spectral range of 400–1600 nm and a weaker reflectance <0.2  in the UV range as well as for wavelengths >1600  nm  . A whiteness of 𝑊=42  is observed for mainly the elytra of the beetle. Chitin is a major constituent of the insect cuticle which is verified by the close similarity of the measured IR spectrum to that of 𝛼  -chitin. The BRDF signal shows close-to-Lambertian properties of the beetle for visible light at small angles of incidence. From the MMSE measurement it is found that the beetles appear as dielectric reflectors reflecting linearly polarized light at oblique incidence with low gloss and a low degree of polarization. The measured beetle properties are properties that can be beneficial in a camouflage material.

Spectral Mueller matrices are very rich in information about physical properties of a sample. We have recently shown that polarizing properties like ellipticity and degree of polarization can be extracted from a Mueller matrix measured on a beetle cuticle (exoskeleton). Mueller matrices can also be used in regression analysis to model nanostructures in cuticles. Here we present the use of sum decomposition of Mueller matrices from these depolarizing biological reflectors to explore the fundamental character of these reflectors. The objective is to decompose a Mueller matrix into well- defined ideal non-depolarizing matrices corresponding to mirrors, circular polarizers, halfwave retarders etc.Generally it is possible to decompose a measured depolarizing Mueller matrix M into four (or fewer) non-depolarizing matrices according to M=λ1M1+λ2M2+λ3M3+λ4M4, where λ1, λ2, λ3 and λ4 are eigenvalues of the covariance matrix of M. Two strategies for decomposition will be discussed. A Cloude decomposition will provide the eigenvalues and also the Mi’s although the latter will contain severe noise in some spectral regions. However, a major advantage with the Cloude decomposition is that the number of nonzero eigenvalues is directly obtained, i.e. the number of contributing Mi matrices. In an alternative decomposition, the Mi’s are assumed and the eigenvalues are found by regression analysis based on M. In the case with two non-zero eigenvalues we define a model Mueller matrix MD=αRM1+βRM2 with αR+βR=1. With αR as adjustable parameter, the Frobenius norm ||M-MD|| is minimized for each wavelength in the spectral range of M. For more complex structures, the regression can be extended by adding more matrices up to a total of four. Advantages with a regression approach are its simplicity and stability compared to a Cloude decomposition.Mueller-matrix spectra of beetle cuticles are recorded with a dual rotating compensator ellipsometer in the spectral range 400 – 900 nm at angles of incidence in the range 20 - 75°. The application of decomposition on biological reflectors is demonstrated on M measured on the beetle Cetonia aurata, which represents a narrow-band chiral Bragg reflector with two non-zero eigenvalues. A decomposition in an ideal mirror and a circular polarizer is feasible. In another example, the broad-band and gold-colored beetle Chrysina argenteola, we show that more than two eigenvalues can be nonzero, especially at oblique incidence, and additional matrices are involved.

Spectral Mueller matrices measured at multiple angles of incidence as well as Mueller matrix images are recorded on the exoskeletons (cuticles) of the scarab beetles Cetonia aurata and Chrysina argenteola. Cetonia aurata is green whereas Chrysina argenteola is gold-colored. When illuminated with natural (unpolarized) light, both species reflect left-handed and near-circularly polarized light originating from helicoidal structures in their cuticles. These structures are referred to as circular Bragg reflectors. For both species the Mueller matrices are found to be nondiagonal depolarizers. The matrices are Cloude decomposed to a sum of non-depolarizing matrices and it is found that the cuticle optical response, in a first approximation can be described as a sum of Mueller matrices from an ideal mirror and an ideal circular polarizer with relative weights determined by the eigenvalues of the covariance matrices of the measured Mueller matrices. The spectral and image decompositions are consistent with each other. A regression-based decomposition of the spectral and image Mueller matrices is also presented whereby the basic optical components are assumed to be a mirror and a circular polarizer as suggested by the Cloude decomposition. The advantage with a regression decomposition compared to a Cloude decomposition is its better stability as the matrices in the decomposition are determined a priori. The origin of the depolarizing features are discussed but from present data it is not possible to conclude whether the two major components, the mirror and the circular polarizer are laterally separated in domains in the cuticle or if the depolarization originates from the intrinsic properties of the helicoidal structure.

Optical properties of chiral nanostructured films made of Al1-xInxN using a new growth mechanism - curved-lattice epitaxial growth - are reported. Using this technique, chiral films with right- and left-handed nanospirals were produced. The chiral properties of the films, originating mainly from an internal anisotropy and to a lesser extent from the external helical shape of the nanospirals, give rise to selective reflection of circular polarization which makes them useful as narrow-band near-circular polarization reflectors. The chiral nanostructured films reflect light with high degree of circular polarization in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum with left- and right-handedness depending on the handedness of the nanostructures in the films.

The exoskeleton, also called the cuticle, of specimens of the scarab beetle Cetonia aurata is a narrow-band reflector which exhibits metallic shine. Most specimens of C. aurata have a reflectance maximum in the green part of the spectrum but variations from blue–green to red–green are also found. A few specimens are also more distinct blue or red. Furthermore, the reflected light is highly polarized and at near-normal incidence near-circular left-handed polarization is observed. The polarization and color phenomena are caused by a nanostructure in the cuticle. This nanostructure can be modeled as a multilayered twisted biaxial layer from which reflection properties can be calculated. Specifically we calculate the cuticle Mueller matrix which then is fitted to Mueller matrices determined by dual-rotating compensator ellipsometry in the spectral range 400–800 nm at multiple angles of incidence. This non-linear regression analysis provides structural parameters like pitch of the chiral structure as well as layer refractive index data for the different layers in the cuticle. The objective here is to compare spectra measured on C. aurata with different colors and develop a generic structural model. Generally the degree of polarization is large in the spectral region corresponding to the color of the cuticle which for the blue specimen is 400–600 nm whereas for the red specimen it is 530–730 nm. In these spectral ranges, the Mueller-matrix element m41 is non-zero and negative, in particular for small angles of incidence, implicating that the reflected light becomes near-circularly polarizedwith an ellipticity angle in the range 20°–45°.

Variable angle Mueller matrix spectroscopic ellipsometry is used to study the properties of light reflected from the exoskeleton (cuticle) of the scarab beetle Cotinis mutabilis. For unpolarized incident light, the ellipticity and degree of polarization of the reflected light reveal a lefthanded helical structure in the beetle cuticle. Analysis of the spectral position of the maxima and minima in the interference oscillations of the Mueller-matrix elements provides evidence for a dispersion relation similar to that of optical modes in chiral nematic liquid crystals calculated within a two-wave approximation. Additionally, a structural model for the cuticle of C. mutabilis is derived from the properties of the optical modes for nonattenuated propagation or selective reflection.

Spectroscopic Mueller-matrix ellipsometry at variable angles of incidence is applied to beetle cuticles using a small (50 -100 μm) spot size. It is demonstrated how ellipticity and degree of polarization of the reflected light can be derived from a Mueller matrix providing a detailed insight into reflection properties. Results from Cetonia aurata, Chrysina argenteola and Cotinis mutabilis are presented. The use of Mueller matrices in regression analysis to extract structural and optical parameters of cuticles is briefly described and applied to cuticle data from Cetonia aurata whereby the pitch of the twisted layered structure in the cuticle is determined as well as the refractive indices of the epicuticle and the exocuticle.

Metamaterials in the form of chiral nanostructures have shown great potential for applications such as chemical and biochemical sensors and broadband or wavelength tunable circular polarizers. Here we demonstrate a method to produce tailored transparent chiral nanostructures with the wide-bandgap semiconductor Al_xIn_1 − xN. A series of anisotropic and transparent films of Al_xIn_1 − xN were produced using curved-lattice epitaxial growth on metallic buffer layers. By controlling the sample orientation during dual magnetron sputter deposition, nanospirals with right-handed or left-handed chirality were produced. Using a dual rotating compensator ellipsometer in reflection mode, the full Mueller matrix was measured in the spectral range 245–1700 nm at multiple angles of incidence. The samples were rotated one full turn around their normal during measurements to provide a complete description of the polarization properties in all directions. For certain wavelengths, unpolarized light reflected off these films becomes highly polarized with a polarization state close to circular. Nanostructured films with right- and left-handed chirality produce reflections with right- and left-handed near-circularly polarized light, respectively. A model with a biaxial layer in which the optical axes are rotated from bottom to top was fitted to the Mueller-matrix data. Hence we can perform non-destructive structural analysis of the complex thin layers and confirm the tailored structure. In addition, the refractive index, modeled with a biaxial Cauchy dispersion model, is obtained for the Al_xIn_1 − xN films.

When illuminated with unpolarized light, the scarab beetle Chrysina gloriosa, reflects left-handed near-circularly polarized light for a broad range of angles of incidence and wavelengths in the visible. It is, however, known that light scattered from the sky, reflected on water or transmitted through leaves often is linearly polarized. In this study we have analysed the polarization of light reflected on this beetle when illuminated with different polarization states of light. We have also analysed how the response would be with a polarization-sensitive detector. The reflected irradiance is shown to be highest when the incident light is s-polarized or left-handed polarized and the detector is unpolarized (or vice versa). In the case in which both, the source and the detector, are polarized, the irradiance is highest when both are s-polarized. On the contrary the visibility is low when the source is s-polarized and the detector is p-polarized.

A brief description of the polarizing environment we are living in and the possibilities for some animals to detect this polarization is made. This is followed by a presentation of how animals and plants generate polarized light, usually through reflection from micro- and nanostructures. Special attention is made to scarab beetles reflecting light with a high degree of circular polarization. Finally some comments on the biological aspects of polarization are made.

The scarab beetle Chrysina gloriosa is green with gold-colored stripes along its elytras. The properties of light reflected on these areas are investigated using Mueller-matrix spectroscopic ellipsometry. Both areas reflect light with high degree of left-handed polarization but this effect occurs for specular reflection for the gold-colored areas and for off-specular angles for the green areas. The colors and polarization phenomena originate from reflection of light in the cuticle and a structural analysis is presented to facilitate understanding of the different behaviors of these two areas. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of the cross section of beetle cuticles show a multilayered structure. On the gold-colored areas the layers are parallel to the surface whereas on the green-colored areas they form cusp-like structures. Optical microscopy images show a rather flat surface in the gold-colored areas compared to the green-colored areas which display a net of polygonal cells with star-shaped cavities in the center. Each of the polygons corresponds to one of the cusps observed in the SEM images. Atomic force microscopy images of the star-shaped cavities are also provided. The roughness of the surface and the cusp-like structure of the green-colored areas are considered to cause scattering on this area.

The optical properties of light reflected from the cuticle of the scarab beetle Cotinis mutabilis are studied using variable angle Mueller matrix spectroscopic ellipsometry. Reflection of left-handed polarized light is demonstrated. Large amplitude interference oscillations in the elements of the normalized Mueller matrix (M) reveal highly transparent materials comprising the beetle cuticle. Off-diagonal elements in M obey simple symmetry relationships due to the constraint in the cross-polarized reflection coefficients between p and s polarizations of chiral systems, r_ps = − r_sp. Based on the latter constraint and further interrelationships experimentally investigated, the number of independent elements in M resulted in only six. Reciprocity is probed from measurements performed in opposite sample orientations and the effects on M due to sample rotation by 90° are discussed. The results suggest relatively large areas in the cuticle of C. mutabilis with a helicoidal structure comprised of fibrils with a well-defined orientation.

Since one hundred years it is known that some scarab beetles reflect elliptically and near-circular polarized light as demonstrated by Michelson for the beetle Chrysina resplendens. The handedness of the polarization is in a majority of cases left-handed but also right-handed polarization has been found. In addition, brilliant colors with metallic shine are observed. The polarization and color effects are generated in the beetle exoskeleton, the so-called cuticle. The objective of this work is to demonstrate that structural parameters and materials optical functions of these photonic structures can be extracted by advanced modeling of spectral multi-angle Mueller-matrix data recorded from beetle cuticles. A dual-rotating compensator ellipsometer is used to record normalized Mueller-matrix data in the spectral range 400 – 800 nm at angles of incidence in the range 25–75°. Analysis of data measured on the scarab beetle Cetonia aurata are presented in detail. The model used in the analysis mimics a chiral nanostructure and is based on a twisted layered structure. Given the complexity of the nanostructure, an excellent fit between experimental and model data is achieved. The obtained model parameters are the spectral variation of the refractive indices of the cuticle layers and structural parameters of the chiral structure.

The attractive shiny metallic colour of jewel scarabs is originating from the structure of the exoskeleton.For some directions and wavelengths of the incident light this structure will also cause the reflectedlight to have a large ellipticity (near-circular polarization). This is due to that the exoskeleton is ahelicoidal structure, formed by layers of chitin molecules. The reflected light is most commonly lefthandedpolarized but right-handed polarization is also observed. In this work six species of Scarabbeetles from the Chrysina genus are investigated. The complete Mueller-matrix is measured with adual rotating compensator ellipsometer (RC2, J.A.Woollam Co., Inc.). The results are presented ascontour plots where we represent different parameters as a function of incidence angle 2[25; 75]and wavelength 2[240; 1000]nm of the incident beam. Parameters of particular interest are the m41element of the Mueller-matrix, which is related to the circular polarization behaviour, the degree ofpolarization, the ellipticity and the absolute value of the azimuth angle. From ocular observationsthrough left- and right-circularly polarizing filters all specimens showed clear polarization effects interms of colour changes. However, the Mueller matrix ellipsometry measurements showed two generaltypes of polarization behaviour depending on the studied species. Chrysina macropus and Chrysinaperuviana had a smaller range of m41 values around zero. Much larger m41 variations were observedfor Chrysina argenteola, Chrysina chrysargyrea and Chrysina resplendens. Chrysina gloriosa hadboth types of polarization behaviour depending on if the measurements where made on the green orgolden parts of this striped beetle. Comparisons among samples of beetles from the same species wereconducted. For instance, different specimens of Chrysina resplendens show rather large differences inthe polarization response whereas specimens of Chrysina chrysargyrea showed very similar polarizationbehaviour. All studied specimens did in some sense reflect both right- and left-handed polarizedlight. In many cases very high ellipticities (near-circular polarization states) were observed. Modelsof structures generating the observed polarization effects as well as biological aspects will also bediscussed.Figure 257: Three pictures of C. chrysargyrea from left to right taken with aleft-circular polarizer, no filters and with a right-circular polarizer in front of thecamera. Two contour plots of m41 for C. chrysargyrea showing a large region withleft-handed near-circular polarization and C. resplendens showing a large regionwith right-handed near-circular polarization.