Effective individual wound management, particularly in cases of prolonged healing and increased infection vulnerability, has prompted the development of wound theranostics, combining real-time diagnostic assessment and on-demand treatment. Here, we present a multifunctional conducting polymer-based smart theranostic bandage that integrates pH sensing, pH-compensated uric acid (UA) biosensing, and on-demand antibiotic release using different conducting polymers, each leveraging their advantageous intrinsic properties. Specifically, the polyaniline-based pH sensor operates reversibly across a pH range of 4-10, while the functionalized poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)-based UA biosensor exhibits a linear response up to 0.9 mM UA. Simultaneous detection of pH and UA allows accurate UA determination via pH compensation. Upon detecting abnormal pH/UA levels, the polypyrrole-based drug carrier releases ciprofloxacin via 0.6 V electrical stimulation, successfully inhibiting bacterial growth in vitro. The array is assembled as a 3D patch, connected to a flexible printed circuit board, and embedded in a wound bandage, offering potential for remote wound monitoring, targeted treatment, and wireless wound management. Smart devices for wound management combine biosensing with drug release. Here, a smart theranostic bandage is reported that can detect pH and uric acid levels and release antibiotics as necessary, all of which can be done remotely.

The thermal conversion of biomass fuel mixes in fluidized beds can cause agglomeration. To counteract agglomeration, bed material is gradually exchanged with virgin bed material, and this results in increased disposal of used bed material. Furthermore, the bed material exchange represents a costly option, as it involves a cost for virgin bed material, for landfill, and for unplanned downtime of the plant. This paper presents a novel method for the evaluation of bed material quality: the electronic tongue (ET). Evaluation of bed material quality can contribute toward decreasing the cost of unnecessary exchanges of bed material. The proposed method was tested on bed material sampled on an almost daily basis from a commercial fluidized bed boiler during several months of operation. A two-electrode ET was used for the evaluation of the bed material quality. The analysis relied on pulsed voltammetry measurements and multivariate data analysis with Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The results suggest that it is possible to follow bed material changes and that the ET, after further development, may be used to optimize the material flows connected to the bed material. Further research is being conducted to optimize the ETs performance and its application in monitoring bed material.

The tremendous growth of disposable electrode-based portable devices for point-of-care testing requires mass production of disposable electrodes in a low-cost and sustainable manner. Here, we demonstrate a green route for the conversion of biomass lignin, patterning, and reduction of the lignin-derived graphene electrodes by sequential laser lithography, water lift-off and sodium borohydride (NaBH4) treatment, and their use for electrochemical lactate biosensors. Energy-saving and localized laser lithography converted the aromatic ring-rich lignin into porous laser-induced graphene (LIG). The conductivity and attachment of the LIG to the substrate were optimized in a factorial experiment with laser power and scan speed as variables. Characterization results revealed the conversion of partial heteroatoms (e.g., Na, S, O) into granular inorganic compounds on the LIG surface under laser treatment. Water was used as an eco-friendly solvent for the patterning of the LIG (P-LIG) by a lift-off process, where the inorganic residues and un-reacted lignin were dissolved, exposing the macro-/micropores in the P-LIG. NaBH4 induced a reduction of the P-LIG (P-rLIG) resulting in improved electrochemical kinetics with lower charge transfer resistance (27.3 omega) compared to the LIG (248.1 omega) and the P-LIG (61.4 omega). The porous P-rLIG served as a 3D electrode for the deposition of Prussian blue and lactate oxidase for disposable electrochemical lactate biosensors, delivering a good analytical performance towards lactate detection with a linear range up to 16 mM and a high sensitivity (1.21 mu A mM-1). These lignin-derived disposable electrodes, utilizing renewable resources together with low-energy consumption fabrication and patterning, may contribute to the sustainable manufacturing of biosensors for point-of-care and point-of-use applications.

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Graphitic materials exhibit significant anisotropy due to the difference in conductivity in a single layer and between adjacent layers. This anisotropy is manifested on epitaxial graphene (EG), which can be manipulated on the nanoscale in order to provide tailor-made properties. Insertion of defects into the EG lattice was utilized here for controllable surface modification with a model biocatalyst and the properties were quantified by both electrochemical and optical methods. A comparative evaluation of the electrode reaction kinetics on the enzyme-modified 2D material vs conventional carbon electrode materials revealed a significant enhancement of mediated bioelectrocatalysis at the nanoscale.

Two experimental methods to estimate the electrochemically active surface area (EASA) of microelectrodes are investigated. One method is based on electrocapacitive measurements and depends significantly on the surface roughness as well as on other parameters. The other method is based on faradaic current measurements and depends on the geometric surface area. The experimental results are supplemented with numerical modeling of electrodes with different surface roughness. A systematic study reveals a strong influence of the scale and arrangement of the surface roughness, the measurement potential and the electrolyte concentration on the EASA of microelectrodes estimated from the electrocapacitive measurements. The results show that electrocapacitive measurements should not be used to estimate the faradaic EASA of microelectrodes with a non-negligible surface roughness.

Eldectron transfer between a biorecognition element and an electrode is an essential element of bioelectrocatalytic systems, such as biosensors and biofuel cells. The number of working systems based on direct electron communication is limited and detailed investigations of the mechanism of the process are still required. Here, we present the use of a novel approach of collision-based bioelectrocatalysis to monitor electrocatalytic currents from individual redox enzyme molecules. This approach allowed us to calculate the individual turnover rates of these molecules and investigate the influence of the applied potential, pH and additions of inhibitor on the observed rates of direct electron transfer.

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Anodization of a graphene monolayer on silicon carbide was monitored with electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Structural and functional changes of the material were observed by Raman spectroscopy and voltammetry. A 21 fold increase of the specific capacitance of graphene was observed during the anodization. An electrochemical kinetic study of the Fe(CN)(6)(3) (/4) redox couple showed a slow irreversible redox process at the pristine graphene, but after anodization the reaction rate increased by several orders of magnitude. On the other hand, the Ru(NH3) (3+/2+)(6) redox couple proved to be insensitive to the activation process. The results of the electron transfer kinetics correlate well with capacitance measurements. The Raman mapping results suggest that the increased specific capacitance of the anodized sample is likely due to a substantial increase of electron doping, induced by defect formation, in the monolayer upon anodization. The doping concentration increased from less than 1 x 10(13) of the pristine graphene to 4-8 x 10(13) of the anodized graphene. (C) 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

We present a brief overview of bioelectrocatalytic devices for in vitro health applications, including food safety and environmental analysis, focusing on microelectrode- and microfluidic-based biosensors, paper-based point-of-care devices and wearable biosensors. The main hurdles and future perspectives are discussed. We then consider the role of electron transfer between a biocatalyst and an electrode in biosensor design. Brief descriptions of indirect, direct and mediated mechanisms are given. The principal strategies, as well as recent developments for modulation of electron transfer in biocatalytic systems are summarised. In conclusion, we highlight some of the challenges associated with improving these redox systems.

A method for diesel detection in surface water in the low ppb range is presented. Even though standard commercial metal oxide gas sensors with detection limits in the ppm range are used, extraction of volatile compounds from the water enables a detection limit of about 2 ppb diesel in the water. The technique can be used for surface water monitoring. The standard technique of ultraviolet fluorescence detection has an interference problem with humic substances. This is not a problem with the suggested technique. Results from lab measurements as well as field tests at a water utility in the Stockholm region in Sweden are presented. (C) 2016 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Single molecule enzymology provides an opportunity to examine details of enzyme mechanisms that are not distinguishable in biomolecule ensemble studies. Here we report, for the first time, detection of the current produced in an electrocatalytic reaction by a single redox enzyme molecule when it collides with an ultramicroelectrode. The catalytic process provides amplification of the current from electron-transfer events at the catalyst leading to a measurable current. This new methodology monitors turnover of a single enzyme molecule. The methodology might complement existing single molecule techniques, giving further insights into enzymatic mechanisms and filling the gap between fundamental understanding of biocatalytic processes and their potential for bioenergy production.

The monitoring of phenolic compounds in wastewaters in a simple manner is of great importance for environmental control. Here, a novel screen printed laccase-based microband array for in situ, total phenol estimation in wastewaters and for water quality monitoring without additional sample pre-treatment is presented. Numerical simulations using the finite element method were utilized for the characterization of micro-scale graphite electrodes. Anodization followed by covalent modification was used for the electrode functionalization with laccase. The functionalization efficiency and the electrochemical performance in direct and catechol-mediated oxygen reduction were studied at the microband laccase electrodes and compared with macro-scale electrode structures. The reduction of the dimensions of the enzyme biosensor, when used under optimized conditions, led to a significant improvement in its analytical characteristics. The elaborated microsensor showed fast responses towards catechol additions to tap water – a weakly supported medium – characterized by a linear range from 0.2 to 10 μM, a sensitivity of 1.35 ± 0.4 A M⁻¹ cm⁻² and a dynamic range up to 43 μM. This enhanced laccase-based microsensor was used for water quality monitoring and its performance for total phenol analysis of wastewater samples from different stages of the cleaning process was compared to a standard method.

Hierarchically structured materials (HSMs) are becoming increasingly important in catalysis, separation and energy applications due to their advantageous diffusion and flux properties. Here, we introduce a facile modular approach to fabricate HSMs with tailored functional conducting polypyrrole microparticles (PPyMP). The PPyMPs were fabricated with a calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) template-assisted polymerization technique in aqueous media at room temperature, thus providing a new green chemistry for producing water-processable functional polymers. The sacrificial CaCO₃ template guided the polymerization process to yield homogenous PPyMPs with a narrow size distribution. The porous nature of the CaCO₃ further allows the incorporation of various organic and inorganic dopants such as an electrocatalyst and redox mediator for the fabrication of functional PPyMPs. Dawson-type polyoxometalate (POM) and methylene blue (MB) were chosen as the model electrocatalyst and electron mediator dopant, respectively. Hierarchically structured electrochemical interfaces were created simply by self-assembly of the functional PPyMPs. We demonstrate the versatility of this technique by creating two different hierarchical structured electrochemical interfaces: POM-PPyMPs for hydrogen peroxide electrocatalysis and MB-PPyMPs for mediated bioelectrocatalysis. We envision that the presented design concept could be extended to different conducting polymers doped with other functional organic and inorganic dopants to develop advanced electrochemical interfaces and to create high surface area electrodes for energy storage.

A self-polishing voltammetric sensor was recently developed and has been applied to samples of urea, milk and sewage water. The polishing device continuously grinds a platinum ring electrode, offering a reproducible and clean electrode surface. Principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least squares (PLS) techniques were applied to interpret the data and to build prediction models. In an evaluation of samples with different urea concentrations, the grinding step allows for repeatable measurements, similar to those after electrochemical cleaning. Furthermore, for the determination of sewage water concentrations in drinking water and for the evaluation of different fat contents in milk samples, the polishing eliminates sensor drift produced by electrode fouling. The results show that the application of a self-polishing unit offers a promising tool for electrochemical studies of difficult analytes and complex media. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Graphene as a nanomaterial consisting of a single layer sheets of atoms of carbon in hexagonal arrangement is making a significant impact in variety of technologies such as energy storage and chemical analysis. The significant attention paid to this thinnest nanomaterial resulted in thousands of patent applications is due to its staggering properties. Due to the planar conjugation of the sp²bonds in graphene, two-dimensional electrical conduction is highly efficient. On the contrary, the efficiency of electron exchange at the out-of-plane of the graphene sheet is small. The significant difference of the densities of electronic states at in-plane and out-of-plane of graphene sheet determines two distinct structural contributions (basal and edge plane respectively) to the behavior of all graphitic materials yielding the chemical and electrochemical anisotropy. Being the simplest building block of graphitic materials, graphene offers the possibility to study the behavior on the simplest level of structural organization. However, the major effort of the recent electrochemical studies of graphene were done using a bulk materials based on graphene flakes possessing the domination of edges of high reactivity. The planar orientation of graphene sheets with controllable exposure of basal plane is achievable via the growth by chemical vapor deposition or by epitaxial flash annealing on crystalline structures of silicon carbide. The slow growth of graphene onto crystalline support during annealing in the inert atmosphere results in a development of a high quality graphene monolayer attached to the solid insulating support. The creation of sp³-type reactive defects on the basal plane of graphite can be achieved by anodization at high anodic potentials.

We developed the procedure for the real-time monitoring of epitaxial graphene anodization. The changes of electrochemical properties of graphene monolayer with anodization have been comparatively investigated by electrochemical methods. The estimation of specific capacitance in pure electrolyte and in conditions of Faradaic process has been carried out. Finally, the direct electrocatalysis of laccase (Trametes versicolor) has been used as an electrode reaction to probe the reactivities of anodized epitaxial graphene and conventional carbon materials.

The monitoring of phenolic compounds in raw waters and wastewaters is of great importance for environmental control. Use of biosensors for rapid, specific and simple detection of phenolic compounds is a promising approach. A number of biosensors have been developed for phenol detection. A general drawback of previously reported biosensors is their insufficient detection limits for phenols in water samples. One way to improve the detection limit is by the use of microelectrodes.

Microband design of the microelectrodes combines convergent mass transport due to the microscale width and high output currents due to the macroscopic length. Among the various techniques available for microband electrode fabrication, we have chosen screen-printing which is a cost-effective production method.

In this study, we report on the development of a laccase-based microscale biosensor operating under a convergent diffusion regime. Screen-printing followed by simple cutting was utilized for the fabrication of graphite microbands as a platform for further covalent immobilization of laccase. Numerical simulations, utilizing the finite element method with periodic boundary conditions, were used for modeling the voltammetric response of the developed microband electrodes. Anodization followed by covalent immobilization was used for the electrode modification with laccase. Direct and mediated laccase bioelectrocatalytic oxidation of phenols was studied on macro- and microscale graphite electrodes. Significant enhancement of the analytical performance was achieved by the establishment of convergent diffusion in the microscale sensor. Finally, the developed microsensor was utilized to monitor phenolic compounds in real waste water.

Blood cholesterol is a very important parameter for the assessment of atherosclerosis and other lipid disorders. The total cholesterol concentration in human blood should be less than 5.17 mM. Concentrations in the range 5.17 – 6.18 mM are considered borderline high risk and levels above 6.21 mM, high risk. Cholesterol determination with high accuracy is therefore necessary in order to differentiate these levels for medical screening or diagnosis. Several attempts to develop highly sensitive cholesterol biosensors have been described, but, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of a self-powered cholesterol biosensor, i.e. a device delivering the analytical information from the current output of the energy of the biocatalytic conversion of cholesterol, without any external power source. This is particularly relevant to the development of inexpensive screening devices based on printed electronics.

We present two complementary bioelectrocatalytic platforms suitable for the fabrication of a self-powered biosensor. Both are based on cholesterol oxidase (ChOx) immobilisation in a sol-gel matrix, as illustrated in Fig. 1 [1]. Mediated biocatalytic cholesterol oxidation [2] was used as the anodic reaction and electrocatalytic reduction of hydrogen peroxide on Prussian Blue (PB) as the cathodic reaction. Due to a synergistic effect in the self-powered cholesterol biosensor, the analytical parameters of the overall device exceeded those of the individual component half-cells, yielding a sensitivity of 0.19 A M^-1 cm^-2 and a dynamic range that embraces the free cholesterol concentrations found in human blood.

Thus, we have demonstrated the novel concept of highly sensitive cholesterol determination using the first self-powered cholesterol biosensor. This configuration is particularly promising for incorporation in emerging plastic- and paper-based analytical instruments for decentralised diagnostics and mobile health.

Arrays of microband electrodes were developed by screen printing followed by cutting, which enabled the realization of microband arrays at the cut edge. The microband arrays of different designs were characterized by physical and electro-chemical methods. In both cases, the methods showed that the microband width was around 5 mm. Semi-steady-state cyclic voltammetry responses were observed for redox probes, and chronocoulometric measurements showed the establishment of convergent diffusion regimes characterized by current densities similar to those of a single microelectrode. The analytical performance of the electrode system and its versatility were illustrated with two electrochemical assays: detection of ascorbic acid through direct oxidation and a mediated glucose biosensor fabricated by dip coating. Due to convergent mass transport, both systems showed an enhancement in their analytical characteristics. The developed approach can be adapted to automated electrode recovery.

The improvement of water management and increasing the access to safe drinking water can develop the quality of life for millions of people world-wide and reduce child mortality due to water-borne diseases [1]. Sweden was recently affected by the lack of appropriate water management which resulted in microbial contamination and tens of thousands of people falling ill [2]. Pollution with chemical compounds is also a waterworks concern. The appearance of pharmaceuticals such as antibiotics in raw water affects the cleaning processes at waterworks [3]. Substances which are not, or are only partly, eliminated in the sewage treatment plant will reach the surface water where they may affect organisms of different trophic levels and cause, for example, the of antibiotics resistance [4]. The inhibition of bacteria of waste water plants by antibiotics may seriously affect organic matter degradation. The efficiency of nitrification as an important step in waste water purification, can be decreased by antibiotics inhibition [5]. Boron-doped diamond (BDD) is an advanced electrode material that possesses the combination of good electrical conductivity achieved via film doping and the extreme chemical inertness of diamond, which gives rise to a number of highly desirable properties of BDD as electrode material: a wide potential window in aqueous media allows electrochemical measurements at both extreme anodic and cathodic potentials, very low capacitive currents leads to a sensitivity increase and extreme chemical and structural inertness prevents electrode fouling [6]. Usage of a microelectrode array as the working electrode offers a variety of benefits for electroanalysis: an improvement of the analytical performance in comparison with macroelectrodes under planar diffusion, higher signal-to-noise ratios due to low capacitive currents at the small surface area, shorter response times and less sensitivity to variations in the water flow rate. The BDD arrays of this work contain 2900 microelectrodes (10 mm diameter each) and have been used for the detection of antibiotics (ofloxacine and canamycin A) in water with high amplitude pulse voltammetry processed by multivariate data analysis. The detection limits observed in monitoring mode were comparable with the characteristics of standard protocols of antibiotics detection, which opens the possibility for continuous monitoring of water.

[1] The United Nations, World Water Development Report 4, 2012; [2] Lindberg, A. et al.,

FOI-R--3376--SE, 2011; Dryselius, R.; National Food Agency, Sweden, 2012; [3] Kummerer

K. Chemosphere, 2009, 75, 417; [4] Kummerer K. Chemosphere, 2009, 75, 435; [5]

Dokianakis, S.N. et al., Water Sci. Technol. 50, 341; [6] Goeting, C. et al.,

NewDiam.Front.C.Tech. 1999, 9, 207; Compton, R. et al., Electroanal. 2003, 15, 1349.

Monitoring the cholesterol level is of great importance, especially for people with high risk of developing heart disease. Here we report on reagentless cholesterol detection in human plasma with a novel single-enzyme, membrane-free, self-powered biosensor, in which both cathodic and anodic bioelectrocatalytic reactions are powered by the same substrate. Cholesterol oxidase was immobilized in a sol-gel matrix on both the cathode and the anode. Hydrogen peroxide, a product of the enzymatic conversion of cholesterol, was electrocatalytically reduced, by the use of Prussian blue, at the cathode. In parallel, cholesterol oxidation catalyzed by mediated cholesterol oxidase occurred at the anode. The analytical performance was assessed for both electrode systems separately. The combination of the two electrodes, formed on high surface-area carbon cloth electrodes, resulted in a self-powered biosensor with enhanced sensitivity (26.0 mA M-1 cm(-2)), compared to either of the two individual electrodes, and a dynamic range up to 4.1 mM cholesterol. Reagentless cholesterol detection with both electrochemical systems and with the self-powered biosensor was performed and the results were compared with the standard method of colorimetric cholesterol quantification.

The use of extremely small working electrodes offers a variety of benefits for electroanalysis. The enhanced mass transport as a result of convergent diffusion is the most important advantage of microdimensional electrodes and results in improved of analytical performance The low detectable-currents problem can be solved by single microelectrode multiplication into an array, thus combining the advantages of enhanced mass transport and high output signals. The microband is one of the most cost-effective and easy-fabricated geometries for microelectrodes. The microband width is a critical microscopic dimension of the electrode, which maintains the dominance of convergent diffusion, whereas the microband length is macroscopic and ensures registration of high currents.

Graphite screen-printing on a plastic support is a standard technology for large-scale production of low cost electrochemical devices. This has been combined with simple guillotine cutting to fabricate of microband arrays for autonomous environmental and clinical monitoring.

Single-layer and multilayer microband arrays of different band lengths were produced and characterised using optical and electrochemical methods. The critical dimension for the microband width to facilitate convergent diffusion was assessed electrochemically and found to be in the order of 5 microns. The developed electrode structures were used as a versatile platform for the manufacture of model electroanalytical systems. Direct oxidation of ascorbic acid was explored at the microband arrays and a glucose biosensor based on mediated and immobilised glucose oxidase was fabricated. Both examples yielded significant enhancement of the analytical performance.

A: the layout of the screen-printed graphite microband array of 5 electrode layers. B: voltammmetric responses obtained at the microband arrays.

Acknowledgement: Formas and Security Link for financial support; David Nilsson (Acreo) for screen-printing.

The use of a mobile phone for classification and quantification of liquid samples is described. The screen of the phone is used for controlled illumination and the front side camera for imaging. No additional optical equipment is needed. It is shown that there are different regions of the captured image containing different information about the sample. One region contains light that has been specular reflected at the air-liquid interface and one is dominated by light that has propagated through the liquid. The specular reflected light contains information about the refractive index of the liquid sample whereas the transmitted light contains information about color and absorption. It is found that the specular reflectance increases linearly with increasing refractive index, n, in the range 1.33 less than n less than 1.38, as expected from the Fresnel equations. A change of the refractive index of about 0.004 refractive units can be detected. The transmitted light intensity is well described by the Beer-Lambert law over a large absorption range. Light from the two different areas of the image is used to analyze several types of liquid samples. It is shown that a combination of the two measurement modes improves the classification abilities of the mobile phone.

A mobile phone has been used both as illumination source and image detector for quantitative optical analysis of colored liquid samples (4 different colorants) and solid samples (printed color patterns, plastic beads and colored sand grains). Even though the measurement conditions were far from ideal, because the light source was strongly polychromatic and the illumination was not a collimated light beam with homogeneous light intensity, a logarithmic concentration dependence, in accordance with the Beer-Lambert law, described the data of the colored liquids quite well. By utilizing blue-blue (420-510 nm), green-green (480-590 nm) and red-red (575-695 nm) illumination/detection combinations, each sample could be assigned a unique color signature for classification that agreed with reference absorbance spectra measured with a spectrometer. Quantification of validation samples within a few percent of the actual values was achieved. Also the long-term repeatability of the measurements was investigated and was surprisingly good for such a simple system. Analysis of the colored solid samples was more complex with results being dependent on the morphology and colorimetric properties of the samples.

The use of a mobile phone with a front side camera for the classification of liquid samples is described. The classification is based on the observation that there are different regions of the image captured by the mobile camera, one containing specular reflected light and one due to diffuse reflected light with transmission through the liquid. The specular reflected light contains information about the refractive index of the liquid sample whereas the diffuse light contains information about the color and absorption properties of the liquid. The information in the specular light is first elucidated. It is found that the reflectance of the region with specular reflected light increases linearly with increasing refractive index, n, in the range 1.33 < _n < 1.38 as expected from the Fresnel equations. The information in the specular light is then used together with the previously described diffuse light from another region of the image to analyze several types of liquid samples. It is shown that a combination of the two areas of the image improves the classification abilities of the mobile phone.

Pulsed voltammetry has been applied to drinking water monitoring. This non-selective technique facilitates detection of several different threats to the drinking water. A multivariate algorithm shows that anomaly detection is possible with a minimum of false alarms. Multivariate analysis can also be used to classify different types of substances added to the drinking water. Low concentrations of sewage water contaminating the drinking water can be detected. A network of such sensors is envisaged to facilitate real-time and on-line monitoring of drinking water distribution networks.

A voltammetric electronic tongue is described that was used for multicomponent analysis of drinking water. Measurements were performed on drinking water from a tap and injections of the compounds NaCl, NaN3, NaHSO3, ascorbic acid, NaOCl and yeast suspensions could be identified. A PLS based model was developed for the simultaneously prediction of identification and concentration of the compounds NaCl, NaHSO3 and NaOCl .By utilizing this type of nonselective sensor technique for water quality surveillance, it will be feasible to detect a plurality of events without the need of a specific sensor for each type of event.

Gas sensors often suffer from signal drift and long response and recovery times, giving rise to problems to evaluate the steady state gas response. It is shown that these problems can be reduced by modulating the test gas concentration and utilizing the change in the slope of the sensor signal as the sensor response feature. The case of low hydrogen concentration detection is studied using a light pulse technique and a PdPt-MIS field-effect device. For the difference in slope method it was possible to reduce the measurement time from hours in the steady state measurements to 1 + 1 min (test gas + reference gas exposure time) and still achieve a detection limit of about 40 ppb for a step change in hydrogen concentration. Such measurements could be made in spite of a drifting baseline caused, e.g. by previous hydrogen exposures. A theoretical model of how a step change in the hydrogen partial pressure affects the difference in slope is given. The model also predicts a non-reactive hydrogen sticking probability (i.e. the probability that an incoming hydrogen molecule from the gas phase will contribute to the response) of about 1 x 10(-8) at 100 ppb H(2), which is about 2 orders of magnitude lower than the reactive sticking coefficient. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

We have investigated the temperature dependence and the effect of hydrogen on the CO response of MISiC field effect device sensors. The evolution of adsorbates on a model sensor was studied by in situ DRIFT spectroscopy and correlated to sensor response measurements at similar conditions. A strong correlation between the CO coverage of the sensor surface and the sensor response was found. The temperature dependence and hydrogen sensitivity are partly in agreement with these observations, however at low temperatures it is difficult to explain the observed increase in sensor response with increasing temperature. This may be explained by the reduction of a surface oxide or removal of oxygen from the Pt/SiO2 interface at increasing temperatures. The sensing mechanism of MISiC field effect sensors is likely complex, involving several of the factors discussed in this paper.

The EVENT project concerns drinking water surveillance and includes sensors and algorithms that detect anomalies in the drinking water properties, communication of the evaluated sensor data to a crises management system and presentation of information that is relevant for the end users of the crises management system. We have chosen to focus on a sensor technique based on an "electronic tongue", since this robust type of non-selective sensor, can detect a plurality of anomalies without the need of a specific sensor for each type of event. Measurements of natural variations and contamination events are presented and discussed.

A light pulse technique and a field-effect device were used to detect small concentration steps of hydrogen in air. The detection limit was lower than 40 ppb, which is at least one order of magnitude lower than previously reported measurements (with field-effect devices) of hydrogen concentration in air. The device structure was a metal-insulator-semiconductor capacitor with a metal double layer with 17.5 nm Pd (upper layer) and 7.5 nm Pt on a SiO2 insulator and a Si substrate.

The present contribution contains an overview of the development of gas sensitive field-effect devices in Linköping during the last 25 years. It is completely centred to the work at the Laboratory of Applied Physics at Linköping University, and is therefore not a proper review of a research field where many important contributions have been made by several other research groups. © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

A modified Scanning Light Pulse Technique (SLPT) setup that can be used to evaluate SiC-based gas-sensitive field-effect devices is introduced. This is exemplified with measurements on a Pt-MISiC capacitor that has a metal thickness gradient. The device shows large responses to hydrogen and ammonia in air. The H-2 and NH3 responses show a complementary dependence on the Pt film thickness at 140 degrees C. The temperature dependence differs however for the two gases. The measurement setup uses UV transparent optics together with mechanical chopping of light from a short wavelength light source. The spatial resolution of the system is found to be approximately 50 mu m.

High-temperature metal-insulator-silicon-carbide (MISiC) sensors are currently under development for use as NH₃ sensors in selective-catalytic-reduction (SCR) systems in diesel engines or non-SCR (NSCR) systems in boilers. The detection of NH₃ by these sensors requires the presence of triple points where the gas, the metal, and the insulator meet. These triple points have traditionally been located at the interface between the insulator and a porous metal. However, to facilitate the long-term stability of the devices when used in a harsh environment, a nonporous gate material would be preferred. Here, the behavior of the samples where such triple points have been introduced in a dense film through cosputtering of the insulator (SiO ₂), and either Pt or Ir is studied. The NH₃ sensitivity of the materials was found to be in accordance with the earlier investigations on Si-based samples with cosputtered gate materials. Several metal-to-insulator ratios for each of the metals Pt and Ir were studied. The sensitivity of the layers as well as their selectivity to different concentrations of NH₃ at temperatures ranging from 150 degC to 450 degC was investigated. The films containing 60%-70% Pt or Ir were found to give a high sensitivity toward NH₃. These samples were shown to be sensitive also to propylene and H₂ but were rather insensitive to NO and CO.

Hydrogen-sensitivePd–SiO₂–Si and Pt–SiO₂–Si metal–insulator–semiconductor (MIS) devices have been studied inultrahigh vacuum in the temperature range of 223–523  K. Adsorption/absorption ofhydrogen occurs at the metal surface, in the metal bulk,and at the metal–insulator interface. The sensor signal, caused byhydrogen adsorption at the interface, shows a logarithmic dependence onthe applied hydrogen pressure. The Pt-MIS device, which is fullyfunctional at atmospheric pressures, is sensitive to changes in hydrogenpressure down to the 10^–12-Torr scale. We propose that theinterface adsorption follows a so-called Temkin isotherm with an interfaceheat of adsorption that varies with hydrogen coverage as H_i0(1–a).The initial heat of adsorption H_i0 is determined to 0.78  eV/hydrogenatom. The adsorption potential at the external Pt surface isfound to be 0.45  eV/hydrogen atom. These values were obtained bymodeling the hydrogen interaction with the MIS devices and fittingthe model to a number of experimental results. Also studiesof Pd-based devices were performed and compared with Pt. Thehydrogen adsorption on the metal surface, previously treated as afirst-order process on Pd, is shown to follow a second-orderprocess. Qualitatively the results from the Pd- and Pt-MIS devicesagree. Quantitatively there are differences. The hydrogen sensitivity of thePt-MIS device is only approximately one-third compared to that ofthe Pd-MIS structure. This agrees with the result that theconcentration of available hydrogen adsorption sites at the Pt–SiO₂ interfaceis approximately 7×10¹⁷ m^–2 whereas the concentrations of sites at thePd–SiO₂ interface is roughly three times larger (2×10¹⁸ m^–2). An estimateof the size of the dipole moments (0.6–0.7  D) implies thatthe interface hydrogen atoms are strongly polarized. Differences are alsoobserved in the microstructure of the metal films. Atomic forcemicroscopy results show that the Pd surface reconstructs during H₂–O₂exposures, while the Pt surface shows no such change atthese temperatures.

Hydrogen-sensitive Pd–SiO₂–Si and Pt–SiO₂–Si metal–insulator–semiconductor (MIS) devices have been studied in ultrahigh vacuum in the temperature range of 223–523 K. Adsorption/absorption of hydrogen occurs at the metal surface, in the metal bulk, and at the metal–insulator interface. The sensor signal, caused by hydrogen adsorption at the interface, shows a logarithmic dependence on the applied hydrogen pressure. The Pt-MIS device, which is fully functional at atmospheric pressures, is sensitive to changes in hydrogen pressure down to the 10⁻¹²-Torr scale. We propose that the interface adsorption follows a so-called Temkin isotherm with an interface heat of adsorption that varies with hydrogen coverage as ΔH_i0(1−aθ). The initial heat of adsorption ΔH_i0 is determined to 0.78 eV/hydrogen atom. The adsorption potential at the external Pt surface is found to be 0.45 eV/hydrogen atom. These values were obtained by modeling the hydrogen interaction with the MIS devices and fitting the model to a number of experimental results. Also studies of Pd-based devices were performed and compared with Pt. The hydrogen adsorption on the metal surface, previously treated as a first-order process on Pd, is shown to follow a second-order process. Qualitatively the results from the Pd- and Pt-MIS devices agree. Quantitatively there are differences. The hydrogen sensitivity of the Pt-MIS device is only approximately one-third compared to that of the Pd-MIS structure. This agrees with the result that the concentration of available hydrogen adsorption sites at the Pt–SiO₂ interface is approximately 7×10¹⁷ m⁻² whereas the concentrations of sites at the Pd–SiO₂ interface is roughly three times larger (2×10¹⁸ m⁻²). An estimate of the size of the dipole moments (0.6–0.7 D) implies that the interface hydrogen atoms are strongly polarized. Differences are also observed in the microstructure of the metal films. Atomic force microscopy results show that the Pd surface reconstructs during H₂–O₂ exposures, while the Pt surface shows no such change at these temperatures.

The hydrogen response of gas-sensitive field-effect devices is mainly due to trapping of atomic hydrogen on the insulator side of the metal-insulator interface of the metal-insulator-semiconductor (MIS) structure. Therefore an influence of the choice of insulator on the hydrogen response properties is expected. We have investigated this influence by producing MIS capacitors with four different insulators; SiO₂, Al₂O₃, Si₃N₄, and Ta₂O₅. The results show that the choice of insulator influences the detection limit, the saturation concentration, and the saturation response. Furthermore, there is a strong correlation between the observed saturation response and the oxygen concentration of the insulator surface, as measured by Auger electron spectroscopy, which indicates that the trapping of hydrogen at the interface occurs at the oxygen atoms of the insulator surface. Finally, if the metal film is porous a catalytic oxidation of the insulator surface appears to be facilitated, which can increase the hydrogen response.

The metal-insulator interface of hydrogen-sensitive metal-insulator-semiconductor capacitors, with SiO2 as the insulator and Pt as the metal contact, was discussed. It was found that the difference in hydrogen response between differently prepared devices was explained by a difference in concentration of available adsorption sites. The analysis showed that the concentration of Pt atoms in contact with the oxide affected both the hydrogen response and the metal-oxide adhesion.

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