The present study investigates the psychometric properties and cut-off scores of a Swedish version of the Negative Acts Questionnaire, the most frequently used instrument to measure exposure to workplace bullying. Based on a probability sample of the Swedish workforce (n = 1853), we investigate the validity of both the full version (NAQ-R) and the short version (SNAQ). We suggest optimal cut-offs for the NAQ-R and SNAQ, and for the subscales measuring work- and person-related bullying. Based on the cut-off scores we provide estimates of prevalence in a Swedish context. The factor structure and psychometric properties are comparable to the Norwegian original and the English versions of the instrument. We also tested the criterion validity using 11 outcome and antecedent variables to bullying, and all provided support for its validity. The identified cut-off scores differentiate clearly when tested against the 11 variables used to test criterion validity in the study. The results showed that the Swedish version of the NAQ-R, including the SNAQ, is a valid measure of workplace bullying. To our knowledge, this study is the first study presenting statistical cut-offs for the NAQ-R subscales as well as investigating both the NAQ-R and the SNAQ simultaneously. The present study also provides some criticism against and suggestions for improving the NAQ-R, aiming to capture even more of the overall experience of exposure, ability to defend oneself, overall duration, and on- and offline exposure.

Previous studies have shown role stress to be an important antecedent of workplace bullying. The present study investigated when and how a long-term effect of role ambiguity on exposure to bullying may be present. Based on the work environment hypothesis, we hypothesized that (a) there is a long-term effect of role ambiguity on exposure of bullying, (b) that this relationship is mediated by hostile work climate, and (c) moderated by supportive leadership. Using a three-wave design, with a time lag of 41–45 months, we showed support for all three hypotheses. The study underscores the importance of clear work-related roles as well as the importance of supportive leadership to prevent the onset of bullying following role stress and hostile climates.

The aim was to investigate how supportive leadership affects workplace bullying—both in terms of risk factors that may lead to bullying but also in terms of the effects of bullying. The thesis includes three survey studies based on different Swedish cohorts and using different research design in terms of the number of data collection waves and timeframes.

Based on the association between workplace bullying and poor health—and drawing on the social learning theory, the theory of social information processing, the social identity theory, and the self-categorisation theory—a circular and multilevel interaction model was created. It is presented together with six hypotheses and an open research question.

The summarised and combined results can be divided into two major parts concerning (a) two studied risk factors (role ambiguity and individual poor health), and (b) the investigated moderator (supportive leadership).

The results showed that role ambiguity is a long term predictor of being exposed to bullying behaviours at work, and that a hostile work climate is a mediator for that association. The results also showed that poor general health is a predictor of future bullying exposure.

The results additionally showed that a supportive leadership fully moderated the effects on exposure to bullying behaviours by (a) ambiguous roles, mediated through a hostile work climate, and (b) poor general health. The result furthermore showed that a supportive leadership have an effect on the association between exposure to bullying behaviours and health. The effect was in terms of a moderated moderation also including co-worker support.

Finally, the results also pointed to direct positive effects of both supportive leadership and co-worker support on individual health as well as to a direct mitigating effect of a supportive leadership on workplace bullying.

Altogether, the thesis points to very important moderating effects of a supportive leadership and especially the fundamentally destructive effects in association with nonsupportive leadership.

Syftet var att undersöka hur stödjande ledarskap påverkar mobbning på arbetsplatsen—både när det gäller riskfaktorer som kan leda till mobbning men också vad gäller effekterna av mobbning. Avhandlingen omfattar tre enkätstudier baserade på olika svenska kohorter och med olika forskningsdesign gällande datainsamlingar och tidsramar.

Baserat på sambandet mellan mobbning och ohälsa—och med utgångspunkt i social inlärningsteori, teorin om social informationsbehandling, social identitetsteori och teorin om självkategorisering—skapades en cirkulär interaktionsmodell med flera nivåer. Den presenteras tillsammans med sex hypoteser och en öppen forskningsfråga.

De sammanfattade och kombinerade resultaten kan delas in i två huvuddelar avseende (a) två studerade riskfaktorer (otydliga roller och individuell bristande hälsa), och (b) den undersökta moderatorn (stödjande ledarskap).Resultatet visade att otydliga roller utgör en långsiktig prediktor för att bli utsatt för mobbningsbeteenden på jobbet, och att ett fientligt arbetsklimat är en mediator för den kopplingen. Resultatet visade också att allmän bristande hälsa utgör en prediktor för framtida mobbningsexponering.

Resultaten visade också att ett stödjande ledarskap helt modererade effekterna av (a) otydliga roller medierat genom ett fientligt arbetsklimat och (b) bristande allmän hälsa på förekomsten av mobbning. Resultatet visade även att ett stödjande ledarskap har en effekt på sambandet mellan exponering för mobbningsbeteenden och hälsa. Effekten var i form av en modererad moderering som även inkluderande stöd från kollegor.

Slutligen pekade resultaten också på direkta positiva effekter av både stödjande ledarskap och stödjande kollegor på individens hälsa samt på en direkt mildrande effekt av ett stödjande ledarskap på förekomsten av mobbning på arbetsplatsen.

Sammantaget pekar avhandlingen på mycket viktiga modererande effekter av ett stödjande ledarskap och särskilt på fundamentalt destruktiva effekter i samband med ickestödjande ledarskap.

This study investigated the consequences of changing jobs for employees subjected to workplace bullying. First, we hypothesized that bullied employees would be more likely to change jobs than non-bullied employees. Moreover, we hypothesized that changing jobs would result in a reduction of exposure to bullying behaviors and an alleviation of mental health problems for those bullied at baseline. The study was based on a longitudinal probability sample of the whole Swedish workforce (n = 1,095). The time lag was 18 months. The results supported all hypotheses except one. Those employees who were bullied at baseline were more likely to have changed jobs at follow-up. Also, for the changers there was a reduction in exposure to subsequent bullying. The actual drop in exposure to bullying behaviors was significant and substantial. This gives further support for the work environment hypothesis, suggesting the work context may be a more important cause than individual characteristics. As for mental health problems, the association between bullying and subsequent anxiety was not significant for those changing jobs, suggesting that leaving a toxic workplace may reduce anxiety relatively quickly. However, depression symptoms were not affected by the change of jobs, and the association between bullying and subsequent depression was the same 18 months later. The conclusion is that changing jobs can be a useful, last resort on an individual level, improving the situation for the victim of bullying. However, it is important to note that it does not solve any underlying organizational problems and risk factors.

The aim of this study was to investigate the risks of being bullied at work based on country of birth, and compared to natives. We used a representative sample of the Swedish workforce collected in the autumn of 2017 (n=1856). The results showed a more than doubled risk of being bullied for the foreign-born. Coming from a culturally dissimilar country, the risk of becoming a victim of bullying was almost fourfold. The increased risk was only for person-related bullying, indicating a risk of being excluded from the social work environment. From a social identity perspective, foreign-born is a salient out-group easy to single out and with a predatory bullying origin they easily become the scapegoat of the group or just an easy target of frustration. There was a greater risk associated with self-labelling as bullied than with the behavioural experience method. Self-labelling could possibly be construed as a mix of exposure to bullying behaviours, and being discriminated against, making it a less suitable method when studying bullying for minorities. The study shows the importance of working with these issues. It severely affects both individuals and the organization in which the negative treatment is occurring. 

Kapitlet inleds med ett exempel som handlar om hur en individ kan både påverka och påverkas av en organisation. Med detta fall som bakgrund beskrivs sedan interaktionen och den ömsesidiga anpassningen mellan individ och organisation. I kapitlet redovisas ett flertal arbets- och organisationspsykologiska förutsättningar för att en individ, med både effektivitet och bibehållen hälsa, ska kunna verka och utvecklas inom organisationens ram. Ett centralt begrepp inom dessa områden är det som kallas arbetsupplevelse. Avslutningsvis diskuteras även personlighetsfaktorer.

The aim of this study was to identity levels of workplace bullying based on cut-off scores, frequency and self-labelled victimization, and to use these levels to identify the escalation of workplace bullying in terms of onset of different negative acts. Data were collected from a representative sample of the Swedish workforce (n = 1856). Bullying was measured using the Negative Acts Questionnaire-Revised together with self-labelled victimization based on a definition. Other variables included aspects of work experience, perception of the organization, and health and well-being. The results showed differences between the suggested levels of workplace bullying (Risk for bullying and Incipient bullying; Ongoing bullying; and Severe and Extreme bullying) for these variables, and also that different areas were pronounced at different levels of workplace bullying. Further, the onset of different negative acts depended on the level of workplace bullying, at early stages only work-related negative acts, but at higher levels more person-related negative acts. The study contributes to the understanding of workplace bullying and the escalation process. The suggested new levels of bullying also have practical and pedagogical value making it easier to grasp and to convey to, e.g. HR personnel, and organizational psychologists.

This report is the first official description of PSYWEQ (Psychosocial Work Environment Questionnaire). PSYWEQ is a measurement instrument focussing on both individual work experience and organisational factors. It was developed by Blomberg and Rosander beginning in 2012.

The main focus of the report was to clarify the factor structure behind PSYWEQ as well as describing the additional instruments included in PSYWEQ – NAQ-22R (Einarsen, Hoel & Notelaers, 2009), SHIS (Bringsén, Andersson & Ejlertsson, 2009) and HAD (Zigmond & Snaith, 1983). The report also includes descriptive statistics based on the first wave of data from a governmental organization, two municipalities and a private organisation.

Vad är egentligen mobbning och vad skiljer det från vanliga konflikter? Hur påverkas de utsatta? Hur ska mobbning bäst hanteras på en arbetsplats och hur kan samhället motverka mobbning? Baserat på den senaste forskningen och utifrån stor egen erfarenhet av att möta utsatta människor besvarar författaren ingående dessa frågor. Varje kapitel inleds med utförliga fallbeskrivningar som levandegör de olika perspektiv som lyfts fram.

Boken vänder sig till universitetsstuderande inom t.ex. personalarbete och psykologi, liksom till praktiker såsom chefer, fackliga representanter och personer verksamma inom personalarbete och företagshälsovård. Boken är också värdefull för kliniskt verksamma personer som i sitt arbete möter utsatta. Boken kan dessutom läsas av personer som av eget intresse vill lära sig mer om mobbning i arbetslivet.