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An insight into the metabolism of New Psychoactive Substances: Structural elucidation of urinary metabolites of synthetic cannabinoids and fentanyl analogues using synthesized reference standards
Linköping University, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Chemistry. Linköping University, Faculty of Science & Engineering.
2020 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) is an umbrella term covering hundreds of substances across different drug groups. Many of these substances were originally developed for therapeutic use but have later appeared on the recreational drug market. The use of NPS has been associated with many outbreaks leading to hospitalizations and has been implicated in numerous fatalities worldwide. To be able to analytically detect drugs in a forensic setting is vital in the fight against the abuse of NPS. One of the most notable challenges in detection of NPS is the identification of major urinary metabolites for use as biomarkers. Furthermore, given the lack of reference standards in most metabolism studies, the major urinary metabolites can often only be tentatively determined.

This thesis describes the synthesis and analysis of potential metabolites used to identify the exact structures of major metabolites of the synthetic cannabinoid AKB-48, fentanyl and five fentanyl analogues in authentic human urine samples and/or hepatocyte incubations. Synthetic targets were chosen based on previous metabolism studies by our research group. Subsequently, synthetic routes were developed to produce numerous potential metabolites across the studied NPS. The synthesized reference standards were analyzed by LC-QTOF-MS alongside hepatocyte drug incubations and authentic human urine samples. Comparison of the resulting analytical data was used to determine the exact structures of many metabolites. This includes urinary metabolites of AKB-48 with a single hydroxyl group situated on a secondary carbon of the adamantane moiety, or position 3 or 5 of the pentyl side chain. For the studied fentanyls, the β-OH and the 4’-OH metabolites were abundant metabolites identified in hepatocyte incubations while the 4’-OH, 4’-OH-3’-OMe and 3’,4’-diOH were the favored metabolic motifs among the metabolites identified in urine.

Additionally, a concise synthetic route to produce synthetic cannabinoid metabolites with the 4-OH-5F pentyl side chain motif was developed and demonstrated for four synthetic cannabinoids.       

These findings and the developed synthetic routes can be used to provide forensic toxicology laboratories with urinary biomarkers for drug detection. Moreover, the synthesized reference standards of major metabolites can be studied to better understand the toxicity of their parent drugs.

Abstract [sv]

Nya psykoaktiva substanser (NPS) är det officiella namnet för den grupp droger som tidigare har kallats för designerdroger, nätdroger eller internetdroger. NPS definieras som droger som utgör ett likvärdigt hot mot folkhälsan som droger som återfinns på Förenta Nationernas narkotikakonventioner men som själva inte återfinns under dessa konventioner.

Det finns hundratals olika rapporterade NPS spridda över olika droggrupper, såsom syntetiska cannabinoider och syntetiska opioider. Vissa av dessa droger syntetiserades ursprungligen i forskningssyfte, men tog sig senare in på den illegala drogmarknaden. De mer nyligen framtagna NPS är ofta designade att efterlikna effekterna av etablerade droger, såsom morfin eller Δ9-THC, vilket är den huvudsakliga psykoaktiva substansen i cannabis. Användandet av NPS har associerats till många kluster av intoxikationer som har lett till hospitaliseringar. Många har även dött till följd av användandet av NPS. Inte minst i USA där en grupp av NPS kallad för fentanylanaloger är högst delaktig i den pågående opioidkrisen.

Den ständiga inströmningen av nya NPS leder till att detektion av och diskriminering mellan dem utgör en svår utmaning för forensiska toxikologilaboratorier. Tillgången av lämpliga referenssubstanser möter inte deras efterfrågan, delvis på grund av att vilka biomarkörer som är optimala för drogdetektion inte alltid är uppenbart. Till exempel så är metabolismen av syntetiska cannabinoider i regel både snabb och omfattande. Av den anledningen kan användandet av modersubstansen som biomarkör vid analys av urin leda till falskt negativa resultat. Urin som biologisk matris har många fördelar jämfört med blod. Till exempel så har urin ett längre detektionsfönster och högre drogkoncentrationer. För att kunna identifiera optimala biomarkörer för droganalys av urinprover så måste drogernas metabolism utredas.

De flesta metabolismstudier använder sig av humana levermikrosomer eller hepatocyter som inkuberas tillsammans med droger för att generera metaboliter in vitro. Urinprover från individer i vilkas blod det har återfunnits droger används också men tillgången är tyvärr begränsad. Dessa metaboliter separeras sedan med hjälp av kromatografiska tekniker och deras kemiska strukturer bestäms med hjälp av masspektrometri. Dock så är utvärderingen av masspektrometridata komplicerad och det är heller inte möjligt att skilja på vissa positionsisomerer genom att enbart analysera masspektrometridata. För att kunna möjliggöra exakt strukturutredning så krävs referensstandarder. Därför var målet med denna avhandling att addera syntes och analys av referensstandarder till de etablerade tillvägagångssätten att studera metabolismen av NPS.

Ett stort antal potentiella metaboliter av AKB-48 och andra syntetiska cannabinoider samt av fentanyl och fentanylanaloger syntetiserades. Genom att använda dessa referensstandarder i metabolismstudier så kunde de exakta kemiska strukturerna för många metaboliter bestämmas. Dessutom så identifierades mönster i de metaboliska profilerna bland fentanyl och fentanylanaloger. Dessa mönster kan användas för att förbättra predikteringen av metaboliter för andra nuvarande och kommande fentanylanaloger.

Dessa resultat samt de utvecklade syntesvägarna kan nyttjas i framställningen av referenssubstanser i syfte att användas som biomarkörer för att i urin kunna detektera drogmissbruk. Referenssubstanserna kan även användas för att studera metaboliternas farmakologiska egenskaper vilket kan leda till en djupare förståelse kring toxiciteten hos modersubstanserna.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Linköping: Linköping University Electronic Press, 2020. , p. 108
Series
Linköping Studies in Science and Technology. Dissertations, ISSN 0345-7524 ; 2093
National Category
Organic Chemistry
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-168689DOI: 10.3384/diss.diva-168689ISBN: 9789179298036 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:liu-168689DiVA, id: diva2:1465002
Public defence
2020-10-23, Planck, F Building, Campus Valla, Linköping, 10:15 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2020-09-09 Created: 2020-09-08 Last updated: 2020-09-25Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Synthesis and identification of an important metabolite of AKB-48 with a secondary hydroxyl group on the adamantyl ring
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Synthesis and identification of an important metabolite of AKB-48 with a secondary hydroxyl group on the adamantyl ring
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2017 (English)In: Tetrahedron Letters, ISSN 0040-4039, E-ISSN 1359-8562, Vol. 58, no 15, p. 1456-1458Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Studies on the metabolism of bioactive substances containing the adamantyl moiety have shown that hydroxylation is likely to occur at a tertiary carbon of adamantane. Herein, we report the synthesis and identification of one major metabolite of AKB-48, a new illicit psychoactive substance with a hydroxyl group at a secondary carbon of the adamantyl ring. (C) 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
PERGAMON-ELSEVIER SCIENCE LTD, 2017
Keywords
Admantane; AKB-48; Synthetic cannabinoid; Metabolite; Biomarker
National Category
Organic Chemistry
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-137391 (URN)10.1016/j.tetlet.2017.02.077 (DOI)000399517600008 ()
Note

Funding Agencies|National Board of Forensic Medicine in Sweden

Available from: 2017-05-18 Created: 2017-05-18 Last updated: 2020-09-08
2. Synthesis and identifications of potential metabolites as biomarkers of the synthetic cannabinoid AKB-48
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Synthesis and identifications of potential metabolites as biomarkers of the synthetic cannabinoid AKB-48
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2018 (English)In: Tetrahedron, ISSN 0040-4020, E-ISSN 1464-5416, Vol. 74, no 24, p. 2905-2913Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

AKB-48 belongs to the family of synthetic cannabinoids. It has strong binding affinity to CBI receptor and is psychoactive. It is banned in many countries including USA, Japan, Germany, New Zealand, Singapore and China etc. But the difficulty in detecting the parent compound in urine samples highlights the importance of studies of its metabolites. Here we report the synthesis of 19 potential metabolites of AKB-48, among which, compounds 2, 9, 10, 30 and 31, together with the commercially available substance 5 were identified as metabolites of AKB-48 by comparison with one authentic human urine sample and human liver microsomal data. Compounds 10 and 30 could be of use as biomarkers in detecting AKB-48 in human urine samples. (C) 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
PERGAMON-ELSEVIER SCIENCE LTD, 2018
Keywords
Metabolite; Biomarker; AKB-48; Synthetic cannabinoid; Adamantane
National Category
Pharmaceutical Sciences
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-150881 (URN)10.1016/j.tet.2018.04.026 (DOI)000441482900001 ()
Note

Funding Agencies|Eurostar project Psychomics; National Board of Forensic Medicine in Sweden

Available from: 2018-09-06 Created: 2018-09-06 Last updated: 2020-09-08
3. Concise Synthesis of Potential 4-Hydroxy-5-fluoropentyl Side-Chain Metabolites of Four Synthetic Cannabinoids
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Concise Synthesis of Potential 4-Hydroxy-5-fluoropentyl Side-Chain Metabolites of Four Synthetic Cannabinoids
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2020 (English)In: Synlett: Accounts and Rapid Communications in Synthetic Organic Chemistry, ISSN 0936-5214, E-ISSN 1437-2096, Vol. 31, no 5, p. 517-520Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Synthetic cannabinoids are a group of compounds that act on the CB1 receptor and are used illicitly as substitutes for cannabis. Given the rapid and extensive metabolism of synthetic cannabinoids, urinary biomarkers are essential if proof of drug intake is to be obtained in forensic laboratories. To identify good biomarker candidates, the metabolism of synthetic cannabinoids must be studied and reference standards need to be acquired. Studies on the metabolism of synthetic cannabinoids containing a terminally fluorinated pentyl side chain have shown that hydroxylation can occur at the four position of the side chain. This makes the 4-hydroxy-5-fluoropentyl side-chain metabolite a good urinary biomarker for proving intake of the corresponding parent drug, as this compound cannot be formed from its nonfluorinated analogue. Here, a concise synthetic route to the 4-hydroxy-5-fluoropentyl side-chain metabolites of the synthetic cannabinoids STS-135, MAM-2201, AM-2201, and XLR-11 is reported.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
GEORG THIEME VERLAG KG, 2020
Keywords
synthetic cannabinoids; forensic science; reference standards; metabolites; biomarkers; psychoactive substances
National Category
Organic Chemistry
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-164639 (URN)10.1055/s-0039-1691571 (DOI)000518641700018 ()
Note

Funding Agencies|Strategic Research Area Forensic Sciences; Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation SystemsVinnova; Eurostars-2 Joint Programme; European UnionEuropean Union (EU) [E!10628]

Available from: 2020-03-29 Created: 2020-03-29 Last updated: 2020-09-08
4. LC-QTOF-MS Identification of Major Urinary Cyclopropylfentanyl Metabolites Using Synthesized Standards
Open this publication in new window or tab >>LC-QTOF-MS Identification of Major Urinary Cyclopropylfentanyl Metabolites Using Synthesized Standards
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2019 (English)In: Journal of Analytical Toxicology, ISSN 0146-4760, E-ISSN 1945-2403, Vol. 43, no 8, p. 607-614Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Cyclopropylfentanyl is a fentanyl analog implicated in 78 deaths in Europe and over 100 deaths in the United States, but toxicological information including metabolism data about this drug is scarce. The aim of this study was to provide the exact structure of abundant and unique metabolites of cyclopropylfentanyl along with synthesis routes. In this study, metabolites were identified in 13 post-mortem urine samples using liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS). Samples were analyzed with and without enzymatic hydrolysis, and seven potential metabolites were synthesized in-house to provide the identity of major metabolites. Cyclopropylfentanyl was detected in all samples, and the most abundant metabolite was norcyclopropylfentanyl (M1) that was detected in 12 out of 13 samples. Reference materials were synthesized (synthesis routes provided) to identify the exact structure of the major metabolites 4-hydroxyphenethyl cyclopropylfentanyl (M8), 3,4-dihydroxyphenethyl cyclopropylfentanyl (M5) and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenethyl cyclopropylfentanyl (M9). These metabolites are suitable urinary markers of cyclopropylfentanyl intake as they are unique and detected in a majority of hydrolyzed urine samples. Minor metabolites included two quinone metabolites (M6 and M7), not previously reported for fentanyl analogs. Interestingly, with the exception of norcyclopropylfentanyl (M1), the metabolites appeared to be between 40% and 90% conjugated in urine. In total, 11 metabolites of cyclopropylfentanyl were identified, including most metabolites previously reported after hepatocyte incubation.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
OXFORD UNIV PRESS INC, 2019
National Category
Pharmacology and Toxicology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-163109 (URN)10.1093/jat/bkz057 (DOI)000504932300004 ()31504610 (PubMedID)
Conference
39th Annual Meeting of the Society-of-Forensic-Toxicologists (SOFT)
Note

Funding Agencies|Strategiomradet Forensiska Vetenskaper (Strategic Research Area Forensic Sciences) at Linkoping University; Eurostar project Psychomics

Available from: 2020-01-13 Created: 2020-01-13 Last updated: 2020-09-08
5. Structure elucidation of urinary metabolites of fentanyl and five fentanyl analogues using LC-QTOF-MS, hepatocyte incubations and synthesized reference standards
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Structure elucidation of urinary metabolites of fentanyl and five fentanyl analogues using LC-QTOF-MS, hepatocyte incubations and synthesized reference standards
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2020 (English)In: Journal of Analytical Toxicology, ISSN 0146-4760, E-ISSN 1945-2403, Vol. 44, no 9Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Fentanyl analogues constitute a particularly dangerous group of new psychoactive compounds responsible for many deaths around the world. Little is known about their metabolism and studies utilizing LC-QTOF-MS analysis of hepatocyte incubations and/or authentic urine samples does not allow for determination of the exact metabolite structures, especially when it comes to hydroxylated metabolites. In this study seven motifs (2-, 3-, 4- and β-OH as well as 3,4-diOH, 4-OH-3-OMe and 3-OH-4-OMe) of fentanyl and five fentanyl analogues, acetylfentanyl, acrylfentanyl, cyclopropylfentanyl, isobutyrylfentanyl and 4F-isobutyrylfentanyl were synthesized. The reference standards were analyzed by LC-QTOF-MS, which enabled identification of the major metabolites formed in hepatocyte incubations of the studied fentanyls. By comparison with our previous data sets, major urinary metabolites could tentatively be identified. For all analogues, β-OH, 4-OH and 4-OH-3-OMe were identified after hepatocyte incubation. β-OH was the major hydroxylated metabolite for all studied fentanyls, except for acetylfentanyl where 4-OH was more abundant. However, the ratio 4-OH/β-OH was higher in urine samples than in hepatocyte incubations for all studied fentanyls. Also, 3-OH-4-OMe was not detected in any hepatocyte samples, indicating a clear preference for the 4-OH-3-OMe, which was also found to be more abundant in urine compared to hepatocytes. The patterns appear to be consistent across all studied fentanyls and could serve as a starting point in the development of methods and synthesis of reference standards of novel fentanyl analogues where nothing is known about the metabolism.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Oxford University Press, 2020
Keywords
Fentanyl analogue, human hepatocytes, metabolism, new psychoactive substances, reference standards
National Category
Analytical Chemistry
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-169944 (URN)10.1093/jat/bkaa021 (DOI)000634883300014 ()32104892 (PubMedID)
Note

Funding agencies: Strategiomradet Forensiska Vetenskaper (Strategic Research Area Forensic Sciences) at Linkoping University; Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation SystemsVinnova; Eurostars-2 Joint Programme; European UnionEuropean Commission [E!10628]

Available from: 2020-09-25 Created: 2020-09-25 Last updated: 2024-10-23Bibliographically approved

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