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On skin preparation: The Operating Room Nurse Perspective
Linköping University, Department of Health, Medicine and Caring Sciences, Division of Nursing Sciences and Reproductive Health. Linköping University, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences. Region Östergötland, Anaesthetics, Operations and Specialty Surgery Center, Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care in Norrköping.ORCID iD: 0000-0003-1410-7012
2024 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Background: Surgical site infections (SSIs) present severe risks to patients undergoing surgery, causing suffering, health complications, and financial burdens to society. Orthopaedic patients, especially those undergoing joint procedures, are particularly vulnerable to SSIs due to the use of implants. Preventing SSIs involves collaborative efforts among healthcare teams and includes skin preparation to reduce bacterial colonisation. Effective and patient-safe skin preparation is an important part of the preventive work. Internationally, there are variations in the responsibility for infection control and skin preparation in the operating room (OR). Swedish OR nurses are uniquely educated in infection prevention and hold responsibility for the prevention of SSIs during the perioperative phase. For patient safety it is important to investigate skin preparation from the perspective of OR nurses. This thesis investigate and compares skin preparation practices used by OR nurses from various perspectives, which may identify vulnerabilities in practices and contribute to enhanced patient safety.  

Aim: The overall aim of this thesis was to investigate and compare skin preparation practices as performed by OR nurses to decrease bacterial colonisation and prevent SSIs.   

Methods: Four studies with varying designs were conducted. A cross-sectional survey investigated the prevalence, utilization patterns and knowledge of different skin preparation methods. A focus group study, guided by Kreuger & Casey's principles, explored skin preparation practices from the perspective of OR nurses. An integrative review synthesized existing research on SSI prevention prerequisites as seen by OR nurses. Finally, a randomized controlled study compared the efficacy of two skin preparation methods for cleaning and disinfecting around sutured wounds.  

Results: The main findings of this thesis address skin preparation in the perioperative phase at both fundamental and operational levels. On the operational level, the results reveal practices with variations and deviations from manufacturers' recommendations and existing scientific evidence, influenced by fundamental factors such as evidence, demands, traditions, routines, authorities' preferences, and OR conditions. OR nurses requested more scientific evidence for skin preparation. Unfortunately, the RCT study could not contribute significant results for cleaning/disinfection around sutured wounds. The OR nurse's responsibility and leadership in SSI prevention were experienced as essential aspects of the profession, although this responsibility was not fully respected by the other OR team members. Adequate resources were considered important for SSI prevention, including sufficient time for safe person-centred care, which was often perceived as lacking.  

Conclusions: Influential fundamental factors such as scientific evidence, traditions, OR conditions, demands, resources and hierarchy impacted skin preparation during the perioperative phase. Addressing these fundamental issues is essential to ensure evidence-based practices and enhance patient safety. Large multi-centre studies on skin preparation including local cleaning and the cleaning of sutured wounds are needed. The fundamental level affected the operational level, where findings of tradition-based care, potential low-value care, and inefficient use of resources underscore the need for further scientific evidence and de-implantation of tradition-based nursing. OR nurses must advocate for their central role in SSI prevention and use safe, evidence-based nursing practices. Improved patient safety stresses the need for respect and understanding of SSI prevention from the OR team and the management as well as ensuring the provision of adequate resources, including sufficient time for person-centred care. 

Abstract [sv]

Bakgrund: Infektioner efter operation är allvarliga komplikationer som orsakar lidande och har stor ekonomisk påverkan på samhället. Patienter som genomgår ortopedisk kirurgi är särskilt utsatta, eftersom ingreppet ofta innebär implantation av främmande material, vilket utgör en betydande riskfaktor för infektion. Förutom lidande kan en infektion leda till extra kirurgi, funktionsnedsättningar och minskad livskvalitet för den drabbade. Uppkomsten av postoperativa infektioner är komplex och kan bero på faktorer hos patienten själv och/eller från omgivningen. Att förebygga infektioner kräver samarbete under hela den perioperativa perioden. Bakteriekolonisation på huden är en riskfaktor och effektiva och patientsäkra hudförberedelser är en viktig del av det förebyggande arbetet. Internationellt finns det skillnader mellan ansvar över infektionskontroll och hudförberedelser. Utifrån ett svenskt omvårdnadsperspektiv är det operationssjuksköterskan som är högst utbildad inom infektions-prevention och bär ansvar för att förebygga postoperativa sårinfektioner under den perioperativa fasen. Genom att utforska och jämföra hud-förberedelser utifrån operationssjuksköterskans perspektiv med olika metoder kan avhandlingen bidra med att identifiera potentiella risker och bidra till ökad patientsäkerhet.  

Syfte: Det övergripande syftet med avhandlingen var att undersöka och jämföra hudförberedelser som utförs av operationssjuksköterskor för att minska bakteriekolonisering och att förebygga postoperativa sårinfektioner.  

Metod: Fyra delstudier med olika design genomfördes; en tvärsnittsstudie för att undersöka förekomst, användningsmönster och kunskaper om olika hudförberedelser på svenska operationsavdelningar med ortopedisk kirurgi. En fokusgruppstudie enligt Krueger & Casey, genomfördes för att utforska hudförberedelser ur operationssjuksköterskors perspektiv. Därefter utfördes en integrativ litteraturöversikt för att sammanfatta befintlig forskning om förutsättningar för att kunna utföra SSI-prevention ur operationssjuksköterskors perspektiv. Slutligen genomfördes en randomiserad kontrollerad studie för att jämföra effekten av två metoder för rengöring/desinfektion runt det suturerade operationssåret.  

Resultat: I en syntes av avhandlingens fyra delstudier framkom hudförberedelser både på grundläggande och operativ nivå. På den operativa nivån beskrevs variationer i utförande, avvikelser från evidens och tillverkarnas rekommendationer samt traditionsbaserad omvårdnad. Den operativa nivån påverkades av den grundläggande nivån och bestod av tillgång på evidens, professionsansvar, resurser, krav samt förutsättningar inom teamet och operationsmiljön. Operationssjuksköterskor efterfrågade mer tydlig vetenskaplig evidens för hudförberedelser. Den randomiserade interventionsstudien kunde inte bidra med nya, signifikanta resultat för rengöring/desinfektion kring det suturerade operationssåret. Operations-sjuksköterskans ansvar och ledarskap i SSI-prevention upplevdes vara väsentliga aspekter av yrket, även om detta ansvar inte alltid fullt ut respekterades av andra medlemmar av operationsteamet. Tillräckliga resurser, inklusive tid för säker personcentrerad vård, ansågs viktiga, men upplevdes ofta som bristande.  

Slutsatser: Grundläggande faktorer som vetenskaplig evidens, traditioner, operationsrummets miljö, krav, resurser och hierarki påverkade hudförberedelser under den perioperativa fasen. Det finns behov av större multicenterstudier avseende perioperativa hudför-beredelser, inklusive lokal rengöring samt rengöring av det suturerade såret efter operation. Den grundläggande nivån påverkade den opera-tionella nivån, där fynd av traditionsbaserad omvårdnad, potentiell lågvärdesvård och ineffektiv resursanvändning understryker behovet av ytterligare vetenskaplig evidens och avveckling av traditionsbaserad omvårdnad. Operationssjuksköterskor bör verka för sin centrala roll i SSI-prevention och använda säker, evidensbaserad omvårdnad. Patient-säkerheten kan förbättras genom att ledningen för operationsavdelningar betonar och tillgodoser behovet av respekt och förståelse för SSI-prevention inom operationsteamet, tillhandahåller adekvata resurser, samt ger tillräcklig tid för att kunna utföra säker personcentrerad vård.   

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Linköping: Linköping University Electronic Press, 2024. , p. 111
Series
Linköping University Medical Dissertations, ISSN 0345-0082 ; 1903
Keywords [en]
Patient safety, Evidence based practice, Operating Room Nurse, Perioperative nursing, Infection control, Prevention, Skin preparation
National Category
Nursing
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-207305DOI: 10.3384/9789180755511ISBN: 9789180755504 (print)ISBN: 9789180755511 (electronic)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:liu-207305DiVA, id: diva2:1894623
Public defence
2024-10-04, Fornborgen, Vingården, Vrinnevisjukhuset, Norrköping, 13:00 (Swedish)
Opponent
Supervisors
Note

Funding: The County Council of Region Östergötland, Medical Research Council of Southeast Sweden, Elisabeth Hamrin foundation and Astrid Janzon Scholarship.

Available from: 2024-09-03 Created: 2024-09-03 Last updated: 2024-09-04Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Diversities in perceived knowledge and practice of preoperative skin preparation in Swedish orthopaedic surgery
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Diversities in perceived knowledge and practice of preoperative skin preparation in Swedish orthopaedic surgery
2015 (English)In: Journal of perioperative practice, ISSN 1750-4589, Vol. 25, no 5, p. 101-106, article id 26292463Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Preoperative skin preparations may reduce the risk of hospital-acquired infections. This cross sectional questionnaire study aimed to identify the practice and knowledge of preoperative skin preparation in Swedish orthopaedic surgery departments. One hundred and six respondents (response rate 68%) from 13 Swedish orthopaedic departments reported a diversity of current recommendations and evidence, and good knowledge of skin preparations. This study found variations in practice and deviations from recommendations, despite high levels of knowledge.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Sage Publications, 2015
Keywords
Disinfection, Skin preparation, Orthopaedic, Chlorhexidine gluconate, Perioperative nursing
National Category
Surgery
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-127375 (URN)10.1177/175045891502500502 (DOI)26292463 (PubMedID)
Available from: 2016-04-24 Created: 2016-04-24 Last updated: 2024-09-03Bibliographically approved
2. Operating room nurses experiences of skin preparation in connection with orthopaedic surgery: A focus group study
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Operating room nurses experiences of skin preparation in connection with orthopaedic surgery: A focus group study
Show others...
2020 (English)In: International Journal of Nursing Practice, ISSN 1322-7114, E-ISSN 1440-172X, Vol. 26, no 5, article id e12858Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Background Preoperative skin preparation is performed differently by different operating room nurses. Aim To deepen the understanding of skin preparation within an orthopaedic surgical setting from the operating room nurse perspective and to explore their experiences. Methods A qualitative exploratory design was used. Four focus group interviews were conducted during 2016-2017, at four hospitals in Sweden, using procedures developed by Krueger and Casey. A total of 19 operating room nurses were recruited through purposive sampling. Results Statements were categorized into four categories of experiences: (1) Knowing, which related to learning and sources of knowledge; (2) Doing, which related to skin preparation and activities based on tradition and evidence; (3) The Team, which related to the assignment of responsibility and collaboration with patients and other professions; and (4) The Setting, which related to factors around the patient and included feelings of time pressure and access to supplies. Conclusions Theory and practice differ, and some skin preparation used are based on tradition rather than on evidence or recommendations. Elements both within the team in the operating room and within the organization influence the result. Operating room nurses duty to perform safe skin preparation must be respected in the team.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
WILEY, 2020
Keywords
chlorhexidine; operating room; patient safety; perioperative nursing; surgical site infection
National Category
Nursing
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-167729 (URN)10.1111/ijn.12858 (DOI)000544316400001 ()32608560 (PubMedID)
Note

Funding Agencies|Medical Research Council of Southeast Sweden; Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care, Vrinnevi Hospital; Anaesthetics, Operations and Speciality Surgery Centre, Region Ostergotland, Sweden

Available from: 2020-07-21 Created: 2020-07-21 Last updated: 2024-09-03
3. Impact of postoperative skin disinfection with chlorhexidine on bacterial colonisation following shoulder arthroplasty surgery: a controlled randomised study
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Impact of postoperative skin disinfection with chlorhexidine on bacterial colonisation following shoulder arthroplasty surgery: a controlled randomised study
Show others...
2024 (English)In: Infection Prevention in Practice, E-ISSN 2590-0889, Vol. 6, no 2, article id 100365Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Background: Surgical site infections are a significant threat to patient safety. Shoulder arthroplasty carries an increased risk due to foreign implants. Skin preparation in general is a key preoperative preventive intervention, and the use of chlorhexidine can have a prolonged effect on bacterial colonisation. There is a lack of evidence regarding whether postoperative disinfection has an impact on bacterial colonisation during the first 48 hours after surgery. Our hypothesis was that applying postoperative antiseptic with 5 mg/ml chlorhexidine in 70% ethanol would lead to reduced bacterial colonisation with Staphylococcus aureus, coagulase-negative staphylococcus and Cutibacterium acnes around the surgical wound within the initial 48 hours after elective shoulder surgery, compared with the use of sodium chloride. Methods: A single-blinded, controlled study was conducted at a county hospital in Sweden. Swabs from the skin were collected four times: at baseline, preoperatively, after the intervention and after 48 hours. Results: Our hypothesis was not confirmed. Although not statistically significant, the chlorhexidine group had a higher prevalence of bacterial colonisation of clinically relevant bacteria. Conclusions: Our study could not confirm that postoperative disinfection with chlorhexidine reduces bacterial colonisation compared with sodium chloride. The results highlight the complexity of SSIs and the importance of evidence-based preventive skin preparation to ensure patient safety. Further research is needed, considering the study's limitations, to explore and evaluate the effectiveness of different skin cleansing solutions and preventive strategies in diverse surgical contexts.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
ELSEVIER, 2024
Keywords
Evidence-based practice; Infection control; Patient safety; Prevention; Skin preparation; Surgical site infections
National Category
Surgery
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-204903 (URN)10.1016/j.infpip.2024.100365 (DOI)001238825900001 ()38765917 (PubMedID)
Note

Funding Agencies|Medical Research Council of Southeast Sweden; County Council of Region Ostergotland

Available from: 2024-06-17 Created: 2024-06-17 Last updated: 2024-09-03

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