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Cooling of Steel Components with Impinging Jet Quenching Technique: The Effect of Continuous and Differential Cooling on Material Properties and Microstructure
Linköping University, Department of Management and Engineering, Engineering Materials. Linköping University, Faculty of Science & Engineering.
2024 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Heat-treatment plays a crucial role in manufacturing and production of steel components since its aim is to provide necessary material properties to fulfil the in-service requirements and comply with the safety measures. Cooling of steel components is a necessary step in heat-treatment and associated with different microstructure manipulations that control the mechanical and other properties, depending on the steel type in question. Common issues of this process, for example in large-scale production of thick bars or in small scale-production of automobile or agricultural steel components, include insufficient cooling rate that leads to poor properties, undesirable residual stresses that may lead to cracks and premature failure, as well as insufficient spatial and temporal control over the quenched sample in case when gradients of mechanical properties are required.  

To avoid the mentioned issues and improve the control during cooling process, a newly developed test rig for Impinging Jet Quenching Technique (IJQT) is used in this thesis to investigate the spatial and temporal behavior of various steel types during different cooling routes. The study is focused on two main cases: continuous cooling of solid cylindrical bars and differential cooling of thick plates. The continuous cooling of bars involves water quench-hardening of low-alloyed carbon steel and different cooling routes of super duplex stainless-steel. The differential cooling of plates involves cooling of different types of carbon steels with various hardenability levels using water and compressed air. The work includes an accurate temperature recording from cooling experiments and metallurgical characterizations for validation of cooling simulation models.  

The results from continuous cooling case showed that martensite hardening of carbon steel bars with water jets can be controlled using IJQT and correlate well with the simulation model which is validated by hardness measurements, microstructure observations and residual stress analysis. Cooling of the duplex stainless-steel bars and their metallurgical characterizations as well as impact toughness results show the technique’s high flexibility and control over temperature evolutions during both water and compressed air cooling. The study of continuous cooling using IJQT in this thesis clearly demonstrates its high potential to be used for other sizes and geometries.  

The results from differential cooling case show that IJQT is flexible enough to provide a wide range of simultaneous cooling rates along the steel plates of different carbon content using both water jets and air jets resulting in various microstructure and hardness gradients. For 0.38-mass% C steel the gradient includes fully martensitic condition with high hardness level transitioning to a slightly softer bainitic region. For the 0.27-mass% C steel the gradient includes almost fully hardened state smoothly transitioning to a soft pearlitic region covering a wide range of hardness levels within a component. The results from physical experiments on differential quenching facilitated further modelling approach for exploring carbon steels in terms of their applicability for microstructure- and hardness gradient formation using different cooling strategies.  

The research in this thesis provides a deeper understanding of how microstructures and properties of steel components can be manipulated using IJQT to achieve specific requirements depending on the steel type in question. In long term, it is believed that the approach used in this thesis will contribute to the development and establishment of an advanced digital tool for optimal selection of alloys and corresponding cooling strategies thus reducing the experimental time and unnecessary emissions. 

Abstract [sv]

Värmebehandling spelar en avgörande roll vid tillverkning och produktion av stålkomponenter eftersom dess syfte är att tillhandahålla nödvändiga materialegenskaper för att uppfylla driftkraven och säkerhetsåtgärderna. Kylning av stålkomponenter är ett nödvändigt steg i värmebehandlingen och förknippat med olika mikrostrukturmanipulationer som styr de mekaniska och andra egenskaperna, beroende på vilken ståltyp det gäller. Vanliga problem med denna process, till exempel vid storskalig produktion av tjocka stänger eller vid småskalig produktion av bil- eller jordbruksstålkomponenter, inkluderar otillräcklig kylhastighet som leder till otillräckliga egenskaper, oönskade restspänningar som kan leda till sprickor och för tidigt brott, såväl som otillräcklig rumslig och tidsmässig kontroll över det släckta provet i fall då gradienter av mekaniska egenskaper krävs.  

För att undvika de nämnda problemen och förbättra kontrollen under kylningsprocessen, används en nyutvecklad testrigg för Impinging Jet Quenching Technique (IJQT) i denna avhandling för att undersöka det rumsliga och tidsmässiga beteendet hos olika ståltyper under olika kylvägar. Studien är fokuserad på två huvudfall: kontinuerlig kylning av cylindriska stänger och differentiell kylning av tjocka plåtar. Den kontinuerliga kylningen av stänger involverar vattenhärdning av låglegerat kolstål och olika kylvägar av superduplext rostfritt stål. Den differentiella kylningen av plåtar innebär kylning av olika typer av kolstål med olika härdbarhetsnivåer med hjälp av vatten och tryckluft. Arbetet inkluderar en noggrann temperaturregistrering från kylexperiment och metallurgiska karakteriseringar för validering av kylsimuleringsmodeller.  

Resultaten från kontinuerligt kylningsfall visade att martensithärdning av kolstålsstänger med vattenstrålar kan kontrolleras med IJQT och korrelerar väl med simuleringsmodellen som valideras genom hårdhetsmätningar, mikrostrukturobservationer och restspänningsanalys. Kylning av duplexstängerna av rostfritt stål och deras metallurgiska egenskaper samt resultat av slagseghetstester visar teknikens höga flexibilitet och kontroll över temperaturutvecklingen under både vatten- och tryckluftkylning. Studiet av kontinuerlig kylning med IJQT i denna avhandling visar tydligt dess höga potential att användas för andra storlekar och geometrier.  

Resultaten från differentiell kylning visar att IJQT är tillräckligt flexibel för att tillhandahålla ett brett utbud av samtidiga kylningshastigheter längs stålplåtarna med olika kolhalter genom att använda både vattenstrålar och luftstrålar, vilket resulterar i olika mikrostruktur- och hårdhetsgradienter. För 0.38 mass% C stål inkluderar gradienten helt martensitiskt tillstånd med hög hårdhetsnivå som övergår till ett något mjukare bainitisktt område. För 0.27 mass% C stål inkluderar gradienten nästan helt härdat tillstånd som smidigt övergår till ett mjukt perlitiskt område som täcker ett brett spektrum av hårdhetsnivåer inom en komponent. Resultaten från fysikaliska experiment på differentiell härdning underlättade ytterligare modelleringsmetoder för att utforska kolstål i termer av deras tillämpbarhet för mikrostruktur- och hårdhetsgradientsbildning med hjälp av olika kylningsstrategier.  

Forskningen i denna avhandling ger en djupare förståelse för hur mikrostrukturer och egenskaper hos stålkomponenter kan manipuleras med IJQT för att uppnå specifika krav beroende på vilken ståltyp det gäller. På lång sikt är förhoppningen att det tillvägagångssättet som används i denna avhandling kommer att bidra till utvecklingen och etableringen av ett avancerat digitalt verktyg för optimalt val av legeringar och motsvarande kylningsstrategier, vilket minskar experimenttiden och onödiga utsläpp. 

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Linköping: Linköping University Electronic Press, 2024. , p. 50
Series
Linköping Studies in Science and Technology. Dissertations, ISSN 0345-7524 ; 2412
National Category
Mechanical Engineering
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-207795DOI: 10.3384/9789180758185ISBN: 9789180758178 (print)ISBN: 9789180758185 (electronic)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:liu-207795DiVA, id: diva2:1900493
Public defence
2024-10-25, ACAS, A-building, Campus Valla, Linköping, 10:15 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Note

Funding: Sweden’s Innovation Agency Vinnova, Swedish Knowledge Foundation, Swedish Agency for Economic and Regional Growth, SSAB, Väderstad Components, Outokumpu, and University of Gävle (UoG)

Available from: 2024-09-24 Created: 2024-09-24 Last updated: 2024-09-30Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Quenching of Carbon Steel Plates with Water Impinging Jets: Differential Properties and Fractography
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Quenching of Carbon Steel Plates with Water Impinging Jets: Differential Properties and Fractography
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2023 (English)In: Materials Structure & Micromechanics of Fracture, Elsevier, 2023, Vol. 43, p. 154-159Conference paper, Published paper (Refereed)
Abstract [en]

The demand for steel components with tailored properties is constantly growing. To obtain a specific variation of microstructures and mechanical properties along the component it must undergo a controllable cooling. One way to control the cooling rates along the component is by using different simultaneous water jet impingements on a hot austenitized surface. This can be done by a newly developed test rig for water Impinging Jet Quenching Technique (IJQT). This work discusses the effect of IJQT on mechanical properties and fracture behavior of 15 mm steel plates containing 0.27 and 0.38 mass-% carbon. The samples were cooled in a specifically designed setup of the technique to obtain simultaneous water and air cooling resulting in diverse microstructures. The mechanical property gradients of both steels were analyzed through hardness measurements and tensile tests. The fracture surfaces and the near fracture regions were observed using scanning electron microscope and light optical microscope respectively. The results from tensile tests showed that the larger part of the sample with higher carbon content was fully hardened, however smoothly transitioning to a more ductile region. The sample with lower carbon content combined various degrees of hardening and transitioned from higher to lower ultimate tensile strength values. Fracture behavior of higher carbon steel was predominantly brittle transitioning to a ductile, while the lower carbon steel had a small region showing brittle fracture transitioning to a larger region of predominant ductile fracture behavior.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier, 2023
Series
Procedia Structural Integrity, E-ISSN 2452-3216 ; 43
Keywords
Martensite, Brittle fracture, Ductile fracture, Impinging Jet Quenching, Boron steel
National Category
Metallurgy and Metallic Materials
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-191833 (URN)10.1016/j.prostr.2022.12.251 (DOI)001198152000026 ()
Conference
10th International Conference on Materials Structure and Micromechanics of Fracture (MSMF), Brno, CZECH REPUBLIC, sep 12-14, 2022
Note

Funding Agencies|Sweden's Innovation Agency Vinnova [2017-02281]; Swedish Agency for Economic and Regional Growth [20201438]

Available from: 2023-02-20 Created: 2023-02-20 Last updated: 2025-11-17
2. Differential Microstructure and Properties of Boron Steel Plates Obtained by Water Impinging Jet Quenching Technique
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Differential Microstructure and Properties of Boron Steel Plates Obtained by Water Impinging Jet Quenching Technique
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2024 (English)In: Steel Research International, ISSN 1611-3683, E-ISSN 1869-344X, Vol. 95, no 1, article id 2300406Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Soil-working tools in agriculture are made of boron-containing steels with high wear resistance and hardenability. Nevertheless, these tools are subject to high impacts, abrasive wear, and fatigue and are therefore prone to failure. To combine varying levels of properties within one component in as-quenched condition can be beneficial for such products. To obtain this property variation, a component must undergo a complex and controllable cooling. Therefore, the aim of this work is to obtain a microstructure gradient along two 15 mm-thick steel plates in a newly developed test rig by water jet impingement technique to confirm its controllability and flexibility. Furthermore, a quenching simulation model is created for hardness prediction using phase transformation data from a machine learning tool. Microstructure variation is observed using light optical microscopy and the electron backscatter diffraction technique. Mechanical properties are studied through tensile tests and hardness measurements and are also compared with simulation results. The 0.27 mass% C steel sample is obtained in almost fully martensitic state transitioning to a softer ferritic/bainitic condition, while the 0.38 mass% C steel sample results predominantly into a fully hardened martensitic state and slightly shows ferritic and bainitic features along the sample. The quenching simulation model shows promising hardness prediction for both steels. A newly developed impinging jet quenching technique is used for differential quenching of 15 mm-thick boron steel sheets with the aim of obtaining microstructure and property gradients along their lengths. As a result, combinations of differential hardness profiles along with varying hardening degrees are produced and metallurgically characterized through microstructure observations and mechanical tests.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
WILEY-V C H VERLAG GMBH, 2024
Keywords
boron steel; critical cooling rate; differential quenching; hardenability; martensite
National Category
Metallurgy and Metallic Materials
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-198813 (URN)10.1002/srin.202300406 (DOI)001082647000001 ()
Note

Funding Agencies|The present study was financed by Swedenapos;s Innovation Agency Vinnova (grant no. 2017-02281) and by the Swedish Agency for Economic and Regional Growth (grant no. 20201438). [2017-02281]; Swedenapos;s Innovation Agency Vinnova [20201438]; Swedish Agency for Economic and Regional Growth

Available from: 2023-10-30 Created: 2023-10-30 Last updated: 2024-09-24
3. Hardening of Cylindrical Bars with Water Impinging Jet Quenching Technique
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Hardening of Cylindrical Bars with Water Impinging Jet Quenching Technique
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2024 (English)In: Steel Research International, ISSN 1611-3683, E-ISSN 1869-344XArticle in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Hardening of carbon steel products by austenitization and immersion in a quenching medium is a widely used heat treatment to obtain a hard and strong martensitic structure. To avoid the undesired consequences, such as residual stresses or insufficient hardening depth, the cooling rates must be accurately measured and controlled. This can be achieved using the impinging water jet quenching technique. The aim of this work is to perform hardening of four low-alloyed 70 mm cylindrical carbon steel bars, using impinging water jet quenching technique with different jet flow rates, and to analyze its effect on thermal evolution and residual stresses. The temperature evolution during quenching experiments is recorded and used as input to a comprehensive quenching model to predict phase transformations, final hardness, and residual stresses of cylindrical bars. All four quenching experiments result in a fully hardened martensitic state. Furthermore, a decrease in jets' flow rate, within a certain interval, results in different thermal histories and in lower compressive residual stresses on the surface. The results from quenching simulations show promising hardness, microstructure, and residual stress predictions that are validated by hardness measurements, optical microscopy, and residual stress analysis using X-Ray diffraction method. Four 70 mm cylindrical steel bars are martensite hardened with different water jet flow rates using impinging jet quenching technique. A finite element method (FEM) quenching model is created to simulate phase transformations and predict the resulting microstructure, hardness, and residual stresses. The model is metallurgically validated through hardness measurements, microstructure observations, and residual stress measurements using X-ray diffraction technique.image (c) 2024 WILEY-VCH GmbH

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
WILEY-V C H VERLAG GMBH, 2024
Keywords
hardening; impinging jet quenching; machine learning; martensite; residual stresses
National Category
Metallurgy and Metallic Materials
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-202288 (URN)10.1002/srin.202300884 (DOI)001180262600001 ()
Note

Funding Agencies|The Knowledge Foundation [20190066]; Knowledge Foundation

Available from: 2024-04-09 Created: 2024-04-09 Last updated: 2025-02-14

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