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The route towards perfection of multifunctional artificial CrB2/TiB2 superlattices: stoichiometry, structure, and layer definition
Linköping University, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Thin Film Physics. Linköping University, Faculty of Science & Engineering.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-3630-8176
2024 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Artificial superlattices with their exceptional properties have been popular in a broad range of applications such as electronic, magnetic, optical, and hard coating. Another potential application for single crystal artificial superlattices is highly efficient interference neutron optics, owing to an ultimate interface width of just ±½ atomic layer. Moreover, studies of superlattices have been instrumental in understanding the hardening mechanisms in transition metal nitrides and carbides while such studies on transition metal diborides are lacking, despite extensive studies on monolithic transition metal diboride thin films.

This thesis describes a logical series of studies solving a range of fundamental issues which enabled epitaxial growth of high quality CrB2/TiB2 (0001) diboride superlattices onto Al2O3 (0001) and 4H-SiC (0001) substrates by direct current magnetron sputter epitaxy. This involved implementation of several different strategies; sputtering from compound diboride targets, co-sputtering from separate metal and compound targets, sputtering from titanium boride (Ti:B = 1:1) and chromium diboride targets, monolayer-control of growth kinetics by Ar-ion assistance, as well as choice of low lattice mismatch substrate. Effects on the structural and interface quality of the superlattices are studied with respect to substrate temperature, B stoichiometry (B/TM ratio), modulation period Λ = DCrB2 + DTiB2, layer thickness ratio Γ = DTiB2/(DCrB2+ DTiB2), ion-assistance energies, use of interfacial protective buffer layers, as well as choice of Al2O3 or 4H-SiC substrates. X-ray diffraction, X-ray reflectivity, Neutron reflectivity, time of flight elastic recoil detection analysis, reciprocal space map, scanning transmission electron microscopy, electron energy loss spectroscopy, selected area electron diffraction, and nano-indentation are used for characterization.

For all experimental conditions, it is found that the highest structural quality of the superlattices are obtained for the layer thickness ratio Γ ≈ 0.3. Using Al2O3 substrates and compound targets, an optimum sputter gas pressure of pAr = 4 mTorr and a substrate temperature of 600 °C, it is found that superlattices with modulation period Λ = 6 nm and Γ in the range of 0.2-0.4 exhibit the highest structural quality. However, B segregation in over-stoichiometric TiBy layers (y > 2), grown from TiB2 compound target, results in narrow epitaxial superlattice columnar growth with structurally distorted B-rich boundaries.

By co-sputtering from Ti and TiB2 targets, y can be tailored in the range 0.9 to 3.3 in TiBy layers through controlling the relative applied target powers. Co-sputtered TiB2.3 single layers exhibit 10x larger epitaxial domains than non-co-sputtered films and high quality close-to-stoichiometric CrB1.7/TiB2.3 superlattices are obtained at a higher growth temperature of 750 °C. The individual CrB1.7 layers grow in a 2D-fashion leading to smooth surfaces and atomically abrupt interfaces when TiB2.3 is grown on top. In contrast, TiB2.3 layers exhibit rough interfaces where CrB1.7 is grown on top which indicate kinetically limited 3D growth of the TiB2.3. The difference in growth mode between CrB1.7 and TiB2.3 is attributed to a 1100 K difference in melting temperatures. Introducing the use of a titanium boride target, close-to-stoichiometric continuous TiB1.8 single layers of high crystal quality are achieved directly, which relaxes any process constraints imposed by the need of balanced fluxes from Ti and TiB2 targets. Moreover, ion-assisted epitaxial growth is implemented by concurrent low energy Ar-ion extracted from the sputtering plasma, to stimulate the mobility of the adatoms, in particular for TiB1.8 which has the highest melting temperature. CrB1.9/TiB1.8 superlattices with single crystal quality and superlattice layer definition exceeding any of the previously obtained superlattices is obtained using TiB target combined with Ar-ion energies of 31 eV and 60 eV for CrB1.9 and TiB1.8, respectively, at a growth temperature of 1173 K. Further enhancement of interface abruptness is obtained by commencing the growth of each individual layer without ion-assistance for one unit cell, forming a buffer layer protecting the just formed interfaces from ion-induced intermixing during the ion-assisted growth of the remaining parts of the layers.

The benefits of using a lattice matched substrate are demonstrated by using 4H-SiC which exhibit only -1.29 % lattice mismatch as compared to -26 % for Al2O3 which is used in the earlier experiments in this work. The SiC allows for growing high quality single crystal superlattices also with thickness ratios Γ = 0.5 and Γ = 0.7. This is attributed to few misfit dislocations generated due to substrate misfit which lead to a strained layer superlattice growth. The superlattices exhibit less structural crystal defects, smoother initial growth, and smaller interface roughness when using SiC substrates.

Abstract [sv]

Konstgjorda supergitter med sina exceptionella egenskaper har varit populära i ett brett spektrum av användningsområden såsom elektroniska, magnetiska, optiska och hårda beläggningar. En annan potentiell tillämpning för enkristallsupergitter är högeffektiv interferensneutronoptik, tack vare att gränssnitten mellan lagren kan vara så tunna som endast ±½ atomlager. Studier av supergitter har även varit avgörande för att förstå härdnings-mekanismerna i övergångsmetall-nitrider och -karbider medan sådana studier på övergångsmetalldiborider saknas, trots omfattande studier av monolitiska tunna filmer.

Denna avhandling beskriver en logisk serie av studier som löser en rad grundläggande problem som möjliggjort epitaxiell tillväxt av högkvalitativa CrB2/TiB2-diboridsupergitter på substrat av enkristallin safir och kiselkarbid genom magnetronsputtring. Detta innebar implementering av flera olika strategier; sputtring från diboridkällor, samsputtring från separata metall- och diboridkällor, sputtring från titanmonoborid- och kromdiboridkällor, kontroll av tillväxt-kinetiken på atomlagernivå genom argonjon-assisterad epitaxi samt val av substrat med liten gittermissanpassning. Effekter på supergittrens kristallstruktur och gränssnittskvalitet studeras med avseende på substrattemperatur, borstökiometri (B/metall-förhållande), modulerings-period Λ = DCrB2 + DTiB2, skikttjockleksförhållande Γ = DTiB2/(DCrB2 + DTiB2), jonassistans-energi, användning av gränssnittsskyddande buffertlager, samt val av safir- eller kiselkarbid-substrat. Röntgendiffraktion, röntgenreflektivitet, neutronreflektivitet, jonstråleanalys, transmissionselektronmikroskopi, elektronenergiförlustspektroskopi, elektron-diffraktion och nanoindentation används för karakterisering.

För alla experimentella förhållanden har det visat sig att den högsta strukturella kvaliteten hos supergittren erhålls för skikttjockleksförhållandet Γ ≈ 0,3. Vid användning av safirsubstrat och sputtring från Cr- och Ti-diboridkällor med ett optimalt sputtergastryck pAr = 4 mTorr och en substrattemperatur på 600 °C, har vi funnit att supergitter med moduleringsperiod Λ = 6 nm och Γ i intervallet 0,2-0,4 uppvisar den högsta strukturella kvaliteten. Emellertid resulterar överstökiometriska TiBy-skikt (y > 2) i segregering av bor som i sin tur leder till tillväxt av supergitter i smala kolumnära epitaxiella domäner med strukturellt förvrängda borrika gränser.

Genom att samsputtra från en Ti- och en TiB2-källa, och välja det rätta effektförhållandet till sputterkällorna, kan y skräddarsys i intervallet 0,9 till 3,3 i TiBy-lagren. Samsputtrade TiB2,3 enkellager uppvisar 10x större epitaxiella domäner än icke-samsamsputtrade filmer, samt ger högkvalitativa, nära stökiometriska, CrB1,7/TiB2,3 supergitter vid en högre tillväxttemperatur på 750 °C. De individuella CrB1.7-skikten växer på ett tvådimensionellt sätt vilket leder till släta ytor och atomärt abrupta gränssnitt när TiB2,3 odlas ovanpå. Däremot uppvisar TiB2,3-skikt ojämna gränssnitt då CrB1,7 odlas ovanpå vilket tyder på en kinetiskt begränsad tredimensionell tillväxtmod av TiB2,3. Skillnaden i tillväxtsätt mellan CrB1,7 och TiB2,3 tillskrivs en 1100 K skillnad i smälttemperaturer. Genom att introducera användningen av en sputterkälla av titanmonoborid uppnås kontinuerliga och nästan stökiometriska TiB1,8-epilager av hög kristallkvalitet, vilket lättar på alla processbegränsningar tack vare behovet av balanserade flöden från Ti- och TiB2-källorna. Samtidigt implementeras jonassisterad epitaxiell tillväxt, genom lågenergetiska Ar-joner som extraheras från sputterplasmat, för att stimulera rörligheten hos adatomerna, särskilt för TiB1,8 som har den högsta smälttemperaturen. De bästa supergittren erhålls genom användningen av en TiB-källa kombinerat med Ar-jonenergier på 31 eV och 60 eV för CrB1,9 respektive TiB1,8, vid en tillväxttemperatur på 1173 K. CrB1,9/TiB1,8 supergitter med enkristallkvalitet och supergitterskiktsdefinition som överstiger något av de tidigare erhållna supergittren. Ytterligare förbättring av gränssnittems abrupthet erhålls genom att påbörja tillväxten av varje enskilt skikt med ett atomlager utan jonassistans, som bildar skyddande buffertskikt på de nyss bildade lagergränsytorna, vilka hindrar joninducerad intermixning av av atomer mellan skikten under den följande jonassisterade tillväxten av återstoden av varje lager.

Fördelarna med att använda ett gitteranpassat substrat påvisas genom att använda kiselkarbid (4H-SiC) som endast uppvisar -1,29 % gittermissanpassning mot supergittren jämfört med -26 % för safir (Al2O3) som använts i de tidigare experimenten i detta arbete. SiC möjliggör odling av högkvalitativa enkristallsupergitter även med tjockleksförhållanden Γ = 0,5 och Γ = 0,7. Detta tillskrivs supergittertillväxt med töjda lager och mindre relaxering av gitterspänningar under kylningen efter tillväxt.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Linköping: Linköping University Electronic Press, 2024. , p. 68
Series
Linköping Studies in Science and Technology. Dissertations, ISSN 0345-7524 ; 2420
Keywords [en]
Superlattices, Diborides, Stoichiometry, Layer definition, Magnetron sputter epitaxy
National Category
Condensed Matter Physics
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-209668DOI: 10.3384/9789180758970ISBN: 9789180758963 (print)ISBN: 9789180758970 (electronic)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:liu-209668DiVA, id: diva2:1913128
Public defence
2024-12-13, Nobel (BL32), B-building, Campus Valla, Linköping, 09:15 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Note

Funding: This work is supported by the Swedish National Graduate School in Neutron Scattering (SwedNess) through the grant by the Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research (SSF) GSn15 - 0008, the Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Advanced Functional Materials (AFM) at Linköping University (Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU No. 2009 00971), grants from the center in Nanoscience and Technology at LiTH CeNano 2021 and 2022, grants from ÅForsk 2022, Intsam 2022, and Lars Hiertas Minne 2022, scholarships from the Society of Vacuum Coaters Foundation (SVCF) 2023, and the Hans Werthén Foundation, the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences (IVA) 2023 (for 4-month research stay in the UK).

Available from: 2024-11-14 Created: 2024-11-14 Last updated: 2025-05-07Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Effects of stoichiometry and individual layer thickness ratio on the quality of epitaxial CrBx/TiBy superlattice thin films
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Effects of stoichiometry and individual layer thickness ratio on the quality of epitaxial CrBx/TiBy superlattice thin films
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2023 (English)In: Materials & design, ISSN 0264-1275, E-ISSN 1873-4197, Vol. 228, article id 111842Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Studies of single crystal artificial superlattices (SLs) of transition-metal (TM) diborides, which is instru- mental to understand hardening mechanisms at nanoscale, is lacking. Here, CrBx/TiBy (0001) diboride SLs [x,y E 1.7-3.3] are grown epitaxially on Al2O3(0001) substrates by direct-current magnetron sputter epitaxy. Growth conditions for obtaining well-defined SLs with good interface quality are found at 4 mTorr Ar pressure and 600 degrees C. 1 -mu m-thick SL films deposited with modulation periods A between 1 and 10 nm, and A=6 nm SLs with TiBy-to-A layer thickness ratios F ranging from 0.2 to 0.8 are studied. SLs with A=6 nm and F in the range of 0.2-0.4, with a near stoichiometric B/TM ratio, exhibit the high- est structural quality. The effects of F and stoichiometries (B/TM ratio) on the distribution of B in the SL structures are discussed. By increasing the relative thickness of TiBy, the crystalline quality of SLs starts to deteriorate due to B segregation in over-stoichiometric TiBy, resulting in narrow epitaxial SL columnar growth with structurally-distorted B-rich boundaries. Moreover, increasing the relative thickness of under-stoichiometric CrBx enhances the SL quality and hinders formation of B-rich boundaries. The SLs are found to exhibit hardness values in the range of 29-34 GPa.(c) 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
ELSEVIER SCI LTD, 2023
Keywords
Diborides; Superlattices; Thin films; Thickness ratio; Modulation period; Stoichiometry
National Category
Materials Chemistry
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-194825 (URN)10.1016/j.matdes.2023.111842 (DOI)000998208000001 ()
Note

Funding Agencies|Swedish National Graduate School in Neutron Scattering (SwedNess); Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research (SSF) [GSn15 -0008]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Advanced Functional Materials (AFM) at Linkoeping University (Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU) [2009 00971]; Swedish Research Council VR [2019-00191, 2021-00357]; Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation [KAW 2015.0043]

Available from: 2023-06-14 Created: 2023-06-14 Last updated: 2024-11-14
2. Enhanced quality of single crystal CrBx/TiBy diboride superlattices by controlling boron stoichiometry during sputter deposition
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Enhanced quality of single crystal CrBx/TiBy diboride superlattices by controlling boron stoichiometry during sputter deposition
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2024 (English)In: Applied Surface Science, ISSN 0169-4332, E-ISSN 1873-5584, article id 159606Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Single-crystal CrB2/TiB2 diboride superlattices with well-defined layers are promising candidates for neutron optics. However, excess B in sputter-deposited TiBy using a single TiB2 target deteriorates the structural quality of CrBx/TiBy (0001) superlattices. We study the influence of co-sputtering of TiB2 + Ti on the stoichiometry and crystalline quality of 300-nm-thick TiBy single layers and CrBx/TiBy (0001) superlattices on Al2O3(0001) substrates grown by DC magnetron sputter epitaxy at growth-temperatures TS ranging from 600 to 900 °C. By controlling the relative applied powers to the TiB2 and Ti magnetrons, y could be reduced from 3.3 to 0.9. TiB2.3 grown at 750 °C exhibited epitaxial domains about 10x larger than non-co-sputtered films. Close-to-stoichiometry CrB1.7/TiB2.3 superlattices with modulation periods Λ = 6 nm grown at 750 °C showed the highest single crystal quality and best layer definition. TiB2.3 layers display rough top interfaces indicating kinetically limited growth while CrB1.7 forms flat and abrupt top interfaces indicating epitaxial growth with high adatom mobility.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier, 2024
Keywords
Superlattice, Diboride, Thin film, Co-sputtering, Nanostructure
National Category
Condensed Matter Physics
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-200730 (URN)10.1016/j.apsusc.2024.159606 (DOI)001183388000001 ()
Note

Funding: Swedish National Graduate School in Neutron Scattering (SwedNess), Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research (SSF) GSn15 - 0008, Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Advanced Functional Materials (AFM) at Linköping University (Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU No. 2009 00971), Center in Nanoscience and technology at LiTH CeNano, Hans Werthén Foundation (IVA), Society of Vacuum Coaters Foundation (SVCF), Swedish Research Council (VR) Grant numbers 2019-00191 (for accelerator-based ion-technological center in tandem accelerator laboratory in Uppsala University), VR and SSF for access to ARTEMI, the Swedish National Infrastructure in Advanced Electron Microscopy (2021-00171 and RIF21-0026), Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation for the support of the electron microscopy laboratory at Linköping University (KAW 2015.0043), VR 2021-00159 for the Swedish neutron reflectometer SuperADAM at ILL 10.5291/ILL-DATA.CRG-2964, and Plansee GmbH for providing diboride targets.

Available from: 2024-02-06 Created: 2024-02-06 Last updated: 2024-11-14Bibliographically approved
3. TiB1.8 single layers and epitaxial TiB2-based superlattices by magnetron sputtering using a TiB (Ti:B = 1:1) target
Open this publication in new window or tab >>TiB1.8 single layers and epitaxial TiB2-based superlattices by magnetron sputtering using a TiB (Ti:B = 1:1) target
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2024 (English)In: Surface & Coatings Technology, ISSN 0257-8972, E-ISSN 1879-3347, Vol. 494, article id 131534Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Sputter-deposited titanium diborides are promising candidates for protective coatings in harsh and extreme conditions. However, growing these layers from TiB2 diboride targets by DC magnetron sputtering usually leads to over-stoichiometric layers with low crystal qualities. Moreover, superlattices with TiB2 as one of the constituents have been becoming popular, owing to their superior mechanical properties compared to single layer constituents in addition to their use in other applications such as neutron optics. Here, we propose the use of a TiB (Ti:B = 1:1) sputtering target in an on-axis deposition geometry and demonstrate the growth of epitaxial sub-stoichiometric TiB1.8 thin films. Furthermore, we present the growth of CrB1.7/TiB1.8 superlattices, from TiB (Ti:B = 1:1) and stoichiometric CrB2 targets, with abrupt interfaces as promising materials system for neutron interference mirrors. The high crystal quality structure with well-defined interfaces is the common feature of superlattices which, regardless of application, should be addressed during the growth process.

Utilizing TiB target, all films crystallize in the hexagonal AlB2 structure. The sub-stoichiometry of the TiB1.8 films was accompanied by the presence of planar defects embedded in the films. CrB1.7/TiB1.8 superlattices exhibited a homogeneous boron distribution within the layers with no sign of B-rich tissue phases through the layers. This study demonstrates the feasibility for TiB as sputter target material, that offers a solution for deposition of TiB2-based superlattices without the need to adjust the deposition parameters. Such adjustments would otherwise be unavoidable for tuning the TiB2 composition and could affect the growth of the other constituent materials.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier, 2024
Keywords
Titanium diboride, Superlattices, Stoichiometry, Magnetron sputter epitaxy
National Category
Condensed Matter Physics
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-209664 (URN)10.1016/j.surfcoat.2024.131534 (DOI)001353994700001 ()2-s2.0-85208189228 (Scopus ID)
Note

Funding: The authors acknowledge financial support from Swedish National Graduate School in Neutron Scattering (SwedNess), Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research (SSF) GSn15 - 0008, Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Advanced Functional Materials (AFM) at Linköping University (Faculty Grant SFO Mat LiU No. 2009 00971), S.D. acknowledges student grants from Center in Nanoscience and technology at LiTH CeNano 2021 and 2022, scholarships from Society of Vacuum Coaters Foundation (SVCF) 2023, and Hans Werthén Foundation (IVA) 2023. Swedish Research Council (VR) Grant numbers 2019-00191 (for accelerator-based ion-technological center in tandem accelerator laboratory in Uppsala University), VR and SSF for access to ARTEMI, the Swedish National Infrastructure in Advanced Electron Microscopy (2021-00171 and RIF21-0026), Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation for the support of the electron microscopy laboratory at Linköping University (KAW 2015.0043).

Available from: 2024-11-14 Created: 2024-11-14 Last updated: 2025-02-28Bibliographically approved
4. Artificial superlattices with abrupt interfaces by monolayer-controlled growth kinetics during magnetron sputter epitaxy, case of hexagonal CrB2/TiB2 heterostructures
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Artificial superlattices with abrupt interfaces by monolayer-controlled growth kinetics during magnetron sputter epitaxy, case of hexagonal CrB2/TiB2 heterostructures
Show others...
2025 (English)In: Materials & design, ISSN 0264-1275, E-ISSN 1873-4197, Vol. 251, article id 113661Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Artificial superlattices exhibit exceptional electronic, magnetic, optical, and mechanical properties which make them unique candidates for applications in a broad range of technologies. A common key feature of superlattices is the need for atomically abrupt interfaces. However, superlattices comprised of materials with different properties, such as melting points and diffusivities, pose large challenges for achieving high crystal quality of both constituents with abrupt interfaces. By employing ion-assisted magnetron sputter epitaxy, we present an innovative solution to this problem with utilizing a unique combination of thermal radiation and kinetic energy that enable sufficient adatom mobility for epitaxial growth of both materials. The research was implemented for the case of CrB2/TiB2 heteroepitaxial superlattices, as neutron interference mirrors, wherein the constituents’ melting points differ by 1100 K. Ion-induced intermixing was avoided by commencing growth of each TiB2 and CrB2 layer by up to 3 unit cells (uc) without ion assistance, forming a buffer to protect the interface during the ion-assisted growth of the remainder of each layer. Heteroepitaxial superlattice growth with interface widths σCrB2 ∼1 uc and σTiB2 ∼2 uc was confirmed for different modulation periods. More than 3000 uc (∼1 µm) thick superlattices with abrupt interfaces were demonstrated for neutron mirror applications.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier, 2025
Keywords
Interface engineering, Magnetron sputtering, Modulated ion-assistance, Neutron optics, Superlattice, Unit cell buffer
National Category
Materials Chemistry
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-211662 (URN)10.1016/j.matdes.2025.113661 (DOI)001421830000001 ()2-s2.0-85215987105 (Scopus ID)
Funder
Swedish Research CouncilKnut and Alice Wallenberg FoundationSwedish Foundation for Strategic Research
Note

Funding Agencies|Swedish National Graduate School in Neutron Scattering (SwedNess); Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research (SSF); Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Advanced Functional Materials (AFM) at Linkoping University; Center in Nano-science and technology at LiTH CeNano 2021 and 2022; Society of Vacuum Coaters Foundation (SVCF); Hans Werthen Foundation; Swedish Research Council (VR) [2019-00191]; Swedish National Infrastructure in Advanced Electron Microscopy [2021-00171, RIF21-0026]; Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation [KAW 2015.0043]; Swedish neutron reflectometer SuperADAM at ILL [VR 2021-00159];  [GSn15-0008];  [2009 00971]

Available from: 2025-02-14 Created: 2025-02-14 Last updated: 2025-03-05

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