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Defect Engineering of Mo2-x CT z MXenes through Precursor Alloying and Effects on Electrochemical Properties
Linköping University, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Materials design. Linköping University, Faculty of Science & Engineering.
Linköping University, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Materials design. Linköping University, Faculty of Science & Engineering.
Linköping University, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Materials design. Linköping University, Faculty of Science & Engineering.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-7502-1215
Linköping University, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Thin Film Physics. Linköping University, Faculty of Science & Engineering.ORCID iD: 0000-0001-9140-6724
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2025 (English)In: Chemistry of Materials, ISSN 0897-4756, E-ISSN 1520-5002, Vol. 37, no 11, p. 4005-4015Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Defect engineering in the form of the intentional creation of defects has been shown to enhance the properties of two-dimensional materials in various applications. Herein, we systematically explore a simple and reproducible method for introducing random vacancies and pores in Mo-based MXenes by combining first-principles calculations and experiments. The process is based on alloying Mo2Ga2C with Cr, which is an element that, together with Ga, is selectively etched in hydrofluoric acid, resulting in vacancies and vacancy clusters in the MXene sheets. The limit of Cr incorporation on the metal site was found to be approximately 60 atom % in the precursor powder Mo2-x Cr x C. Lower concentrations, up to 25 atom %, were used in the subsequent synthesis of Mo2-x Cr x Ga2C, since an increasing Cr content promoted the formation of another MAX phase (Mo2-x Cr x GaC). A Mo1.87CT z MXene derived from Mo1.87Cr0.13Ga2C (6.5 atom % Cr) exhibited excellent electrochemical behavior, reaching a volumetric capacitance of 1117 Fcm-3 at 2 mVs-1 scan rate, and suggested that defect concentration can be used to tune the rate capability. Overall, we have demonstrated that using Cr as a sacrificial element in the MAX phase is a simple and effective strategy for the defect engineering of MXenes. Moreover, this method can likely be extended to include other sacrificial elements and MAX phases, making MXene defect engineering a viable pathway for property enhancement across various applications, including energy storage and catalysis.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
AMER CHEMICAL SOC , 2025. Vol. 37, no 11, p. 4005-4015
National Category
Materials Chemistry
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-214450DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.5c00143ISI: 001499945400001Scopus ID: 2-s2.0-105006773935OAI: oai:DiVA.org:liu-214450DiVA, id: diva2:1966985
Note

Funding Agencies|H2020 European Research Council [KAW 2020.0033]; Knut and Alice Wallenberg (KAW) Foundation for Project [101087713]; European Union (ERC) [2009-00971]; Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Advanced Functional Materials at Linkoping University; KAW Foundation [2022-06725]; Swedish Research Council

Available from: 2025-06-11 Created: 2025-06-11 Last updated: 2026-04-20
In thesis
1. Design of Novel 3D and 2D Laminated Materials: Theoretical and Experimental Perspectives
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Design of Novel 3D and 2D Laminated Materials: Theoretical and Experimental Perspectives
2026 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Materials innovation has continuously shaped technological progress, from early bronze metallurgy to modern semiconductor engineering. In the pursuit of miniaturized and sustainable technologies, two-dimensional (2D) materials have emerged as a promising platform due to their reduced dimensionality and tunable properties. This thesis contributes to both the discovery of novel 2D materials and their performance optimization through structural engineering.

The discovery of new compounds focuses on MBenes, 2D borides derived from MAB phases through molten salt etching. A theoretical screening framework is developed to identify promising MAB precursors and suitable salts for selective etching, and by combining theoretical and experimental approaches, further insights into etching mechanisms and the role of different molten salts were revealed (Paper V). The experimental selective etching of Ti2InB2 into a multilayer (ml) Ti2B2Clx MBene was investigated in detail in Paper III, where the Ti2InB2-to-ml-MBene conversion was indicated to occur through direct biphasic transformation without intermediate phases. In addition, Paper IV studies the influence of surface terminations (T = O, Cl, Br, and I) on the structural, mechanical, and electronic properties of 2D Ti2B2Tx MBenes. The first-principles simulations suggested that surface termination engineering is as a powerful route for tailoring their functional properties and MBenes’ potential use in energy-related applications, including photovoltaics.

This work also demonstrates defect- and alloy-engineering strategies for tailoring 2D MBenes and MXenes (transition metal carbides and nitrides). Papers I and II introduce the concept of generating random vacancies in MXenes by incorporating Cr as a sacrificial element in the parent MAX phase. The resulting Mo2-xCTz MXenes, with varying defect concentrations, exhibited shorter etching times and enhanced specific electrochemical capacitance values. In addition, the rate capability varied with defect content, indicating that the Cr content can be further modulated to achieve optimized electrochemical performance. Extending this concept to the newly synthesized ml-MBenes, Paper VI presents the synthesis of 3D (Ti1-xHfx)2InB2 and ml-(Ti1-xHfx)2B2Clx boride alloys, in which the properties could be tuned by varying the Ti/Hf ratio. Collectively, these results establish defect and compositional engineering as viable routes for tailoring the structure and properties of 2D nanomaterials for various applications.

By integrating computational prediction with experimental realization, this thesis advances the discovery, synthesis, and functional optimization of laminated carbide and boride systems and their 2D derivatives, MXenes and MBenes.

Abstract [sv]

Innovationer baserade på nya material har drivit den tekniska utvecklingen – från bronsålderns metallurgi till dagens avancerade halvledarteknik. I jakten på mindre volymer av material och mer hållbara teknologier har tvådimensionella (2D) material vuxit fram som ett lovande alternativ tack vare en supertunn struktur och justerbara egenskaper. Den här avhandlingen bidrar både till upptäckt av nya 2D-material och optimering av deras egenskaper och prestanda, möjliggjort genom strukturell design.

Den första delen av det arbete som genomförts fokuserar på 2D-borider (MBener) som framställs från MAB-faser genom etsning i smälta salter. Ett teoretiskt ramverk tas fram för att identifiera lovande MAB-faser för etsning och tillhörande lämpliga salter (Paper V). Den experimentella verifieringen av selektiv etsning av Ti2InB2 till en multilagrad (ml) struktur av Ti2B2Clx-MBen studerades i detalj i Paper III. Genom att kombinera teori och experiment gavs nya insikter om mekanismer bakom etsningen och om hur olika smälta salter påverkar processen. Till exempel visade resultaten att omvandlingen från Ti2InB2 till ml-MBen sker genom en direkt fasomvandling, vilket skiljer sig något från reaktioner hos vanliga MXener, som ofta går via mellanliggande faser när de bildas. I Paper IV undersöks dessutom hur olika termineringsgrupper (T = O, Cl, Br och I) påverkar de strukturella, mekaniska och elektroniska egenskaperna hos 2D Ti2B2Tx-MBener. Simuleringar pekar på att ytfunktionalisering är en kraftfull metod för att styra materialens egenskaper och deras möjliga användningsområden, till exempel för energirelaterade tillämpningar, inklusive solceller.

Arbetet visar också hur defekt- och legeringsdesign kan användas i 2D-MBener och MXener. I Paper I och II introduceras idén att skapa slumpmässiga vakanser i 2D-MXener genom att tillsätta Cr i den ursprungliga MAX-fasen, för vilken Cr etsas bort och bildar vakanser när 2D-materialet skapas. De resulterande Mo2-xCTz-MXenerna, med varierande defekthalter, uppvisade kortare etsningstider och förbättrade elektrokemiska kapacitansvärden. Även förmågan att leverera ström vid högre hastigheter varierade med defekthalten, vilket visar att justering av Cr-innehållet kan vara en väg mot optimerad elektrokemisk prestanda. Genom att överföra detta koncept till nya borider, så visar Paper VI syntes av- boridlegeringar i form av 3D-(Ti1-xHfx)2InB2 och ml-(Ti1-xHfx)2B2Clx, där egenskaperna kan finjusteras genom olika Ti/Hf-förhållanden. Sammantaget visar resultaten att design av defekter och ett materials sammansättning är effektiva strategier för att skräddarsy struktur och egenskaper hos 2D-nanomaterial för olika tillämpningar.

Genom att kombinera beräkningsbaserade förutsägelser med experimentell verifiering bidrar avhandlingen till utveckling av nya laminerade karbid- och boridmaterial samt deras motsvarande 2D-material, MXener och MBener, och till att optimera deras funktionella egenskaper.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Linköping: Linköping University Electronic Press, 2026. p. 74
Series
Linköping Studies in Science and Technology. Dissertations, ISSN 0345-7524 ; 2525
Keywords
2D materials, Multilayers, Borides, Carbides, Defect engineering, Density Functional Theory, Materials stability, Selective etching
National Category
Polymer Chemistry
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-223012 (URN)10.3384/9789181185676 (DOI)9789181185669 (ISBN)9789181185676 (ISBN)
Public defence
2026-05-29, Planck, B-building, Campus Valla, Linköping, 09:15 (English)
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Available from: 2026-04-20 Created: 2026-04-20 Last updated: 2026-04-20Bibliographically approved

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