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Sexual and reproductive health in young women with ADHD: Women's and health care professionals' perspectives
Linköping University, Department of Health, Medicine and Caring Sciences, Division of Nursing Sciences and Reproductive Health. Linköping University, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences. Region Östergötland, Center of Paediatrics and Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics in Linköping.
2026 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Background: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) has historically been associated with hyperactive boys, leaving women underrepresented in research, including in sexual and reproductive health (SRH). In this thesis the perspectives of young women with ADHD and health care professionals (HCPs) will be used to explore SRH in young women with ADHD and identify health care strategies that may support informed bodily autonomy, safe sexual experiences free of judgment, healthy relationships and equitable access to SRH services.

ADHD is a common neurodevelopmental condition characterized by inattention, hyperactivity-impulsivity or both, affecting daily functioning. Gender-specific symptom presentation and comorbidities often delay diagnosis and access to care for young women. Compared with neurotypical peers, young women with ADHD are more likely to engage in sexual risk-taking behaviors, experience relationship conflicts, and report sexual dysfunction, contributing to higher rates of unplanned pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases (STI), and lower relationship quality. Anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, and cultural norms around sexual behavior, may further impact SRH.

Aim: To explore SRH in young women with ADHD and to identify and describe health care strategies that may contribute to SRH.

Method: In the first two studies qualitative interviews were conducted with young women with ADHD (study I) and HCPs (study II) from psychiatric, gynecological, and youth clinics. Both studies were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis. In study III, phenomenography was used to address a new research question based on data from studies I and II. Study IV was performed as a Delphi study. An online survey, developed from the findings in studies I-III and previous literature, was distributed in two rounds to young women with ADHD and HCPs in psychiatric clinics, school health, youth clinics and sexual health clinics. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics.

Findings: Impulsively acting on emotions, fluctuating emotions and challenges with maintaining focus could lead to unprotected casual sex, relationship struggles, and difficulty concentrating during sex, while spontaneity and curiosity helped women find partners and expand their sexual knowledge (studies I, II). Low self-esteem, due to living with ADHD, could contribute to difficulties expressing needs in intimate situations and fear of rejection in relationships (studies I, II). Some women reported shame after being judged for breaking sexual norms, which discouraged them from seeking care (studies I, II). HCPs noted that societal expectations could lead to self-blame when women felt unable to manage sexual situations or relationships (study II). SRH experiences varied depending on comorbidity, life circumstances, timing of diagnosis, and support from family and health services (study II). Supportive partners improved acceptance and relationship quality (study I).

To provide reliable support, HCPs needed to facilitate trust through involvement and non-judgmental encounters (studies III, IV). Organizations could enable this by ensuring sufficient time and staffing, continuity, routines for discussing SRH, and training for HCPs on SRH and ADHD (studies III, IV). Accessibility could be assured through targeted information for young women with ADHD, flexible clinic hours, varied appointment formats, and coordinated care (studies III, IV). Structured visits may enhance focus and information uptake. Early ADHD diagnosis was believed to enable treatment and support that could help prevent sexual risk-taking and low self-esteem (studies I, III, IV). Self-knowledge helped with self-acceptance and with developing strategies for sexual satisfaction and risk reduction (study I).

Conclusions: Living with ADHD may contribute to positive sexual experiences and sexual knowledge for young women; however, ADHD symptoms, social norms, and low self-esteem may negatively affect SRH. To individualize SRH support, HCPs need to consider variations in functional ability, existing coping strategies, comorbidity, and life circumstances. Tailored, accessible care; early recognition of ADHD-related functional impairments in girls; and organizational conditions that promote accessibility and trust can help ensure that young women with ADHD receive appropriate support and have equal opportunities to exercise their sexual and reproductive rights alongside their neurotypical peers. The findings may further inform the development of clinical guidelines for SRH promotion in young women with ADHD, as well as emphasizing SRH strategies in existing clinical guidelines concerning ADHD management.

Abstract [sv]

Bakgrund: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) har historiskt sett förknippats med hyperaktiva pojkar. Forskning som inkluderar kvinnor är därför begränsad och det finns behov av att fördjupa kunskapen inom området sexuell och reproduktiv hälsa (SRH). Denna avhandling avser att utforska hur SRH upplevs av unga kvinnor med ADHD, vilka faktorer som påverkar, samt hur hälso- och sjukvården kan främja SRH i denna grupp. Förhoppningen är att resultaten ska kunna bidra till att stärka kvinnors möjligheter att fatta informerade beslut om sin egen kropp, få möjlighet till säkra och positiva sexuella möten utan risk för diskriminering eller stigmatisering, utveckla hälsosamma relationer samt få tillgång till hälso- och sjukvård som främjar dessa rättigheter.

ADHD är en vanlig neuropsykiatrisk funktionsnedsättning som kännetecknas av koncentrationssvårigheter och/eller hyperaktivitet och impulsivitet med funktionspåverkan på det dagliga livet. Symtom uppmärksammas i mindre utsträckning hos flickor än hos pojkar och flickor och kvinnor diagnostiseras senare i livet. Samsjuklighet med ångest, depression, ätstörningar och självskadebeteenden är särskilt vanligt hos unga kvinnor med ADHD och kan ytterligare försena diagnostik. Studier visar att unga kvinnor med ADHD oftare har tillfälligt oskyddat sex och är mer utsatta för sexuellt våld än neurotypiska jämnåriga, vilket in sin tur leder till en högre förekomst av oplanerade graviditeter, sexuellt överförbara infektioner och negativ påverkan på den psykisk hälsan. Utmaningar med känsloreglering och koncentration kan också påverka relationskvalitet och nöjdhet med sexlivet. Ångest, depression och låg självkänsla, i kombination med kulturella normer kring sexuellt beteende, riskerar vidare att indirekt påverka SRH hos unga kvinnor.

Syfte: Att utforska SRH hos unga kvinnor med ADHD samt identifiera och beskriva strategier inom hälso- och sjukvård som kan bidra till att främja SRH.

Metod: I de två första studierna genomfördes intervjuer med unga kvinnor med ADHD (studie I) och hälso- och sjukvårdspersonal (studie II) som arbetar på psykiatriska kliniker, gynekologiska kliniker och ungdomsmottagningar. Båda studierna analyserades med reflexiv tematisk analys. I studie III genomfördes en fenomenografisk analys av intervjudata från studie I och II, som inte hade analyserats tidigare. Studie IV genomfördes som en Delphi-studie. En webbenkät utvecklades baserat på resultaten från studie I–III samt tidigare litteratur inom området. Enkäten skickades i två omgångar till unga kvinnor med ADHD samt till hälso- och sjukvårdspersonal som arbetar på psykiatriska mottagningar, ungdomsmottagningar, en mottagning för sexuell hälsa och inom elevhälsan. Data analyserades med deskriptiv statistik.

Resultat: Medan impulsivitet samt utmaningar med känsloreglering och koncentration kunde leda till oskyddat tillfälligt sex, relationsproblem och svårigheter att fokusera under sex, bidrog spontanitet och nyfikenhet till att hitta partners och sexuella erfarenheter som ökade kunskapen om den egna sexualiteten (studie I, II). Låg självkänsla beskrevs vidare som en konsekvens av att leva med ADHD, vilket kunde bidra till svårigheter att uttrycka behov och önskningar i intima situationer samt en rädsla för att bli avvisad i längre relationer (studie I, II). Kvinnorna ansågs bryta mot sexuella normer när de hade tillfälligt sex. Flera beskrev att de kände sig dömda av jämnåriga och känslor av skuld och skam kunde leda till en tvekan att söka vård (studie I, II). Vårdpersonal noterade att samhälleliga förväntningar kunde leda till självanklagelser när kvinnor kände sig oförmögna att hantera sexuella situationer eller relationer som förväntat (studie II). Upplevelsen av SRH varierade och påverkades av samsjuklighet, livsomständigheter, tidpunkt för ADHD-diagnos samt vilket stöd som fanns från familj, vänner och sjukvård (studie II). Förståelse från partnern bidrog till en känsla av acceptans och stärkte relationen (studie I).

För att ge tillförlitligt stöd behövde vårdpersonal bygga förtroende genom delaktighet och ett icke-dömande bemötande (studie III, IV). Organisationer kunde stödja detta genom att säkerställa att det fanns tid, personalresurser, kontinuitet, rutiner för att diskutera SRH samt utbildning för vårdpersonal om SRH och ADHD (studie III, IV). Riktad information till unga kvinnor med ADHD ansågs bidra till informerade beslut medan flexibla öppettider, varierade besökstyper och samordnad vård bidrog till ökad tillgänglighet (studie III, IV). Strukturerade besök kunde förbättra koncentration och informationsupptag. Att få en ADHDdiagnos tidigt i livet ansågs möjliggöra behandling och stöd som kunde förebygga sexuellt risktagande och främja självkänsla (studie I, III, IV). Självkännedom beskrevs bidra till självacceptans och utveckling av strategier för sexuell tillfredsställelse och riskprevention (studie I).

Slutsats: Att leva med ADHD kan bidra till positiva sexuella erfarenheter och ökad sexuell kunskap hos unga kvinnor. Samtidigt kan ADHD-symtom, sociala normer och låg självkänsla påverka SRH negativt. För att främja SRH behöver vårdpersonal ta hänsyn till individens varierande funktionsförmåga och de strategier personen har för att hantera symtom, samt förstå hur samsjuklighet och livssituation kan påverka. Det är viktigt att hälso- och sjukvården tillgodoser tillgänglighet som utgår från kvinnornas behov, och att funktionspåverkan relaterad till ADHD uppmärksammas tidigt hos flickor för att möjliggöra adekvat stöd som främjar SRH samt förebygger fysisk och psykisk ohälsa. Organisatoriska förutsättningar som främjar tillgänglighet och förtroendefulla relationer i sjukvårdsmöten kan vidare bidra till att kvinnor med ADHD ges samma möjligheter som sina neurotypiska jämnåriga att utöva sina sexuella och reproduktiva rättigheter. Våra resultat kan vidare användas för att utveckla kliniska riktlinjer för att främja SRH hos unga kvinnor med ADHD samt integreras i befintliga kliniska riktlinjer som berör personer med ADHD.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Linköping: Linköping University Electronic Press, 2026. , p. 92
Series
Linköping University Medical Dissertations, ISSN 0345-0082 ; 2013
Keywords [en]
ADHD, Delphi study, Health care professionals, Health promotion, Qualitative design, Sexual and reproductive health and rights, Young women
Keywords [sv]
ADHD, Delphi-studie, Hälsofrämjande arbete, Hälso- och sjukvårdspersonal, Kvalitativ design, Sexuell och reproduktiv hälsa och rättigheter, Unga kvinnor
National Category
Gynaecology, Obstetrics and Reproductive Medicine
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-223620DOI: 10.3384/9789181183306ISBN: 9789181183290 (print)ISBN: 9789181183306 (electronic)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:liu-223620DiVA, id: diva2:2057851
Public defence
2026-06-05, Berzeliussalen, Building 463, Campus US, Linköping, 09:00 (Swedish)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2026-05-06 Created: 2026-05-06 Last updated: 2026-05-07Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Self-experienced sexual and reproductive health in young women with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: a qualitative interview study
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Self-experienced sexual and reproductive health in young women with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: a qualitative interview study
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2022 (English)In: BMC Women's Health, E-ISSN 1472-6874, Vol. 22, no 1, article id 289Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Background Sexual risk behaviors and struggles in romantic relationships result in higher risk of unplanned pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases, sexual victimization and lower satisfaction in relationships for young women with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). There is a need to better understand sexual behaviors and the consequences of relational difficulties to help health professionals promote sexual and reproductive health. To deepen knowledge in this area, this study aimed to identify and describe self-experienced sexual and reproductive health in young women with ADHD. Methods A qualitative design was used. Data was collected with individual and focus group interviews with 15 young women, aged 15-29, with an ADHD diagnosis, and analyzed with thematic analysis. Results Data analysis identified the themes Acceptance of being different and Feeling sexually secure. The women reveal feelings of being different from others without ADHD as they break norms of sexual behavior, struggle with romantic relationships, and have difficulties concentrating during sex. There is a need to be understood and accepted, to not feel judged, and to manage romantic relationships. Self-knowledge helps them to recognize needs for support and to develop strategies that can improve sexual satisfaction. Feeling sexually secure illustrates the womens need to feel comfortable with their own sexuality and in control in the sexual situation. Low self-esteem and a negative self-image, described as a consequence of living with ADHD, can compromise communication in sexual situations and increase fear of being rejected. Further, misjudging sexual partners and situations can contribute to sexual victimization. Conclusions This study provides knowledge of how ADHD affects emotions and sexual behaviors in young women. The results highlight the need for understanding and acceptance by peers and partners. It accentuates the value of involving the partner in counselling and the importance of self-knowledge. Feeling insecure in sexual relationships further implies the importance of early diagnosis to prevent secondary outcomes of ADHD, and the need for sexual victimization screening in professional settings.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
BMC, 2022
Keywords
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder; Health promotion; Reflective thematic analysis; Sexual and reproductive health; Young women
National Category
Public Health, Global Health and Social Medicine
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-187391 (URN)10.1186/s12905-022-01867-y (DOI)000825402000003 ()35836208 (PubMedID)
Note

Funding Agencies|Linkoping University; Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology in Linkoping; Department of Health, Medicine and Caring Sciences, Linkoping University, Linkoping, Sweden; Medical Research Council of Southeast Sweden

Available from: 2022-08-22 Created: 2022-08-22 Last updated: 2026-05-06
2. Sexual and reproductive health in young women with ADHD from the view of health care professionals
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Sexual and reproductive health in young women with ADHD from the view of health care professionals
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2024 (English)In: BMC Women's Health, E-ISSN 1472-6874, Vol. 24, no 1, article id 389Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

BackgroundSexual risk-taking and struggles in managing romantic relationships may put young women with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) at risk of sexually transmitted diseases, unplanned pregnancies, and low relational satisfaction. To gain understanding of sexual behaviors and intimate relationships, this study aimed to identify and describe health care professionals' (HCPs) perceptions and experiences of sexual and reproductive health (SRH) in young women with ADHD.MethodsQualitative interviews were performed with 16 HCPs. Data was analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis.ResultsAnalysis resulted in the themes Struggling to meet expectations, Sexual risk-taking, and Complex romantic relationships. HCPs' perceptions and experiences indicated that some women were afraid to be judged in clinical meetings when not living up to perceived expectations of sexual behaviors. Lack of impulse control was interpreted by HCPs to result in risk-taking behaviors leading to both negative and positive sexual experiences. Difficulties in assessing intentions of sexual partners were further perceived by HCPs to sometimes lead to sexual regrets or sexual victimization. The HCPs had experience of women wishing for romantic relationships but described these as being complicated by previous experiences, low self-esteem and conflict. ADHD medication and self-knowledge were perceived by HCPs to facilitate the women's relationship quality.ConclusionsThis study highlights that, from the perspective of HCPs, self-stigmatization and hesitation to raise issues concerning sexuality with HCPs may pose risks for young women with ADHD. It provides insight into sexual risk-taking behaviors, showing the link to regretted sex and sexual victimization. The study concludes that there is a need for HCPs to understand the influence of stigma concerning ADHD and female sexuality as well as how symptoms and outcomes of living with ADHD may impact SRH in order to promote healthy behaviors and relationships in young women.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
BMC, 2024
Keywords
ADHD; Health care professionals; Sexual and reproductive health; Qualitative method; Young women
National Category
Public Health, Global Health and Social Medicine
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-206404 (URN)10.1186/s12905-024-03230-9 (DOI)001262985400002 ()38970031 (PubMedID)
Note

Funding Agencies|Linkoeping University; Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology in Linkoeping; Department of Health, Medicine and Caring Sciences, Linkoeping University, Linkoeping, Sweden; Medical Research Council of Southeast Sweden

Available from: 2024-08-19 Created: 2024-08-19 Last updated: 2026-05-06
3. Having Reliable Support: A Prerequisite to Promote Sexual and Reproductive Health in Young Women with ADHD
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Having Reliable Support: A Prerequisite to Promote Sexual and Reproductive Health in Young Women with ADHD
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2024 (English)In: Archives of Sexual Behavior, ISSN 0004-0002, E-ISSN 1573-2800, Vol. 53, no 10, p. 4117-4129Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Living with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may influence sexual behaviors and intimate relationships in young women, resulting in a higher risk of unwanted pregnancy, sexual victimization, and sexual dysfunction. To develop adequate support, the study aimed to describe conceptions of how to promote sexual and reproductive health (SRH) in young women with ADHD. A secondary analysis using phenomenography was performed on qualitative interview data exploring variations of support. The study involved 15 young women with ADHD, aged 15-29 years, and 16 health care professionals, with various professions, working in the fields of gynecology, youth health, and psychiatry. Having reliable support was conceptualized as fundamental for promoting SRH. Access to information concerning SRH and living with ADHD as well as early support from health care contributed to a reliable support enabling self-knowledge and management of sexual relationships. Trustful relationships in health care were perceived as important because of previous experiences of feeling misunderstood and criticized in life, making them feel comfortable discussing SRH. Clinical encounters with a clear structure were further perceived to make information more accessible and clinics that provided appropriate organizational conditions and collaborated with other clinics were described to enhance the availability of support. This study reveals the need for clinics to provide conditions that ensure SRH support is available, accessible, and free of stigmatization. Early intervention programs for young women with ADHD may be considered, offering guidance on SRH issues in both psychiatric and sexual health clinics.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
SPRINGER/PLENUM PUBLISHERS, 2024
Keywords
ADHD; DSM-5; Phenomenography; Sexual and reproductive health; Young women
National Category
Psychiatry
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-208303 (URN)10.1007/s10508-024-03001-5 (DOI)001318949600001 ()39313694 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-85204607153 (Scopus ID)
Note

Funding Agencies|Linkoeping University; Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology in Linkoeping; Department of Health, Medicine and Caring Sciences, Linkoeping University, Sweden; Medical Research Council of Southeast Sweden

Available from: 2024-10-09 Created: 2024-10-09 Last updated: 2026-05-06

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