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Effects of a waiting list control design on alcohol consumption among online help-seekers: A randomised controlled trial?
Linköping University, Department of Health, Medicine and Caring Sciences, Division of Society and Health. Linköping University, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-4263-9027
Linköping University, Department of Health, Medicine and Caring Sciences, Division of Society and Health. Linköping University, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences.ORCID iD: 0000-0003-1699-3185
Univ York, England.
Linköping University, Department of Health, Medicine and Caring Sciences, Division of Society and Health. Linköping University, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-8678-1164
2024 (English)In: Drug And Alcohol Dependence, ISSN 0376-8716, E-ISSN 1879-0046, Vol. 263, article id 112409Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Background: Indirect evidence suggests that using waiting list control designs in behavioural research may have unintended consequences. The aim of this study was to estimate the effects of a waiting list design on alcohol consumption among individuals who had looked online for help. Methods: A two-arm randomised controlled trial was employed. The intervention group was informed that they belonged to the intervention group and would receive immediate access to a digital alcohol intervention. The waiting list control group was informed that they belonged to the group that had to wait four weeks to be given access to the intervention and in the meantime, they would be given a summary of their drinking. However, both groups received immediate access to the same digital alcohol intervention; the experimental contrast was thus between being told to wait or not. Results: We randomised 3388 participants (intervention: 1692, waiting list: 1696). Data were available for 954 participants at 1-month follow-up. We found no strong evidence that alcohol consumption differed between groups, but the evidence pointed towards the intervention group reporting lowering weekly alcohol consumption compared to the waiting list control group (IRR = 0.95, 95 % CI = 0.83; 1.08, probability of effect = 78.8 %). Conclusion: We found no strong evidence that being informed that access to an intervention would be delayed produced differential self-reported alcohol consumption compared to being informed that access would be immediate. We did find a difference in engagement with the intervention materials, indicating that the experimental manipulation was successful.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
ELSEVIER IRELAND LTD , 2024. Vol. 263, article id 112409
Keywords [en]
Waiting list; Control group; Behavioural intervention; Alcohol; Research participation effects; Randomised controlled trial
National Category
Drug Abuse and Addiction
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-207127DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2024.112409ISI: 001297772300001PubMedID: 39153442OAI: oai:DiVA.org:liu-207127DiVA, id: diva2:1894226
Available from: 2024-09-02 Created: 2024-09-02 Last updated: 2025-02-11
In thesis
1. Research Participation Effects in Alcohol Research: Bias in the evaluation and simulation of long-term outcomes of digital alcohol interventions
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Research Participation Effects in Alcohol Research: Bias in the evaluation and simulation of long-term outcomes of digital alcohol interventions
2025 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Background: Alcohol consumption is a significant global public health issue, causing approximately 2.6 million deaths in 2019, with 1.6 million attributed to noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) such as cardiovascular diseases and cancers. The World Health Organization emphasizes reducing alcohol intake as a key strategy for addressing NCDs and contributing to the attainment of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. In Sweden, 75% of the adult population consume alcohol and 40% are classified as risky drinkers according to national guidelines. The societal costs of alcohol-related consequences in Sweden amount to approximately 9 billion euros annually. There is, therefore, a pressing need for health promotion and disease prevention interventions targeting alcohol consumption. Digital interventions have emerged as promising tools to support individuals in reducing alcohol consumption. These interventions can reach large populations at low costs, but their long-term health benefits and cost-effectiveness remain uncertain. Health economic evaluations, including cost-effectiveness analyses, are crucial for assessing the long-term health benefits of interventions. These evaluations balance costs against health outcomes and integrate data from various sources, including randomised controlled trials (RCTs). However, the validity of RCT results can be compromised by methodological factors, such as research participation effects (RPEs). RPE is an umbrella term that refers to changes in behaviour, attitudes, or beliefs of individuals that occur simply because individuals are participating in a study. These changes result from the unique context of research, where participants may react unexpectedly to tasks they are invited to do, influencing their behaviour instead of the treatment provided. One example of how RPEs can be induced is by using waiting list control group designs. There is a small growing body of literature providing evidence that using waiting lists may lead to consequences for participants. However, this remains an underresearch area.

Aim: The overall aim of this thesis is to investigate how RPEs may bias estimates of effects in trials of digital alcohol interventions, and how such biases propagate when simulating long-term outcomes.

Studies: Five studies were conducted to address the aim of this thesis. In Study I, an individual level simulation model was developed and applied to investigate long-term outcomes of a digital alcohol intervention, including the incidence of 10 alcohol-related diseases, quality-adjusted life years (QALYs), and costs. The results showed that access to the intervention could lead to fewer disease cases, in particular alcohol-related liver disease and liver cancer, more QALYs, and lower costs compared to referral to websites with information on alcohol and health. A systematic review was conducted in Study II to investigate which RPEs have been studied in alcohol-related research. The systematic review identified studies that investigated RPEs stemming from four design choices: informed consent, assessment, group allocation, and waiting list. In Studies III and IV, waiting list designs were investigated further, and the effects of being allocated to a waiting list on alcohol consumption were estimated in an RCT. The results from Study III showed that participants were not neutral to being allocated to a waiting list control group in an alcohol intervention study, rather, being told that access to the intervention would be delayed had a negative impact on participants. Results from Study IV provided evidence that participants allocated to a waiting list control group were one month later more likely to report higher alcohol consumption than participants allocated to an intervention group, however, considerable uncertainty remained regarding these estimates. In Study V, the impact of four RPEs on simulated long-term outcomes of a digital alcohol intervention were quantified by accounting for the impact of RPEs on the estimated intervention effect. Results showed that ignoring RPEs can both under and overestimate long-term outcomes, potentially affecting policy decisions.

Conclusions: Disseminating digital alcohol interventions can help reduce alcohol-related diseases, such as liver disease and liver cancer, improving public health cost-effectively. While trial design choices may introduce biases, these interventions remain cost-effective if biases are minimal. However, modest intervention effects make these biases more concerning and should be carefully considered. Design choices lead to RPEs which may not only bias estimates of effects, but may also have negative impacts on participants’ behaviour. The use of waiting lists is one example, and given their potential harm, it is crucial to explore ways to mitigate their negative impact and consider alternative control group designs.

Abstract [sv]

Bakgrund: Alkoholkonsumtion är ett stort globalt hälsoproblem som ledde till cirka 2,6 miljoner dödsfall år 2019. Av dessa dödsfall berodde 1,6 miljoner på sjukdomar som hjärt-kärlsjukdomar och cancer. Världshälsoorganisationen betonar att minska alkoholkonsumtionen är en viktig strategi för att minska incidensen av dessa sjukdomar och nå FN:s hållbara utvecklingsmål. I Sverige dricker 75% av den vuxna befolkningen alkohol, och 40% anses vara riskkonsumenter enligt nationella riktlinjer. Kostnaderna för alkoholrelaterade sjukdomar i Sverige är cirka 103 miljarder kronor per år. Det finns därför ett behov av hälsofrämjande och sjukdomsförebyggande insatser som riktar sig mot alkoholkonsumtion. Digitala verktyg har visat sig lovande för att hjälpa människor att dricka mindre. Dessa verktyg kan nå många människor till en låg kostnad, men vi vet ännu inte vilka utfall spridningen av dessa interventioner skulle ha på lång sikt. Hälsoekonomiska utvärderingar, till exempel kostnadseffektivitetsanalyser, är viktiga för att förstå de långsiktiga fördelarna med olika insatser. Dessa utvärderingar jämför kostnader med hälsovinster och använder data från olika källor, inklusive randomiserade kontrollerade studier (RCTs). Men resultaten från RCTs kan påverkas av metodologiska faktorer, till exempel Research Participation Effects (RPEs). RPE är ett begrepp som beskriver förändringar i beteende, attityder eller övertygelser hos personer som kan tillskrivas deras deltagande i en studie. Dessa förändringar beror på den unika forskningsmiljön, där deltagare kan reagera på det som de ombeds att göra. Därmed så kan deltagares beteende påverkas av studiekontexten snarare än insatsen som utvärderas. Ett exempel är att placera kontrollgruppsdeltagare på en väntelista, där forskning nu visar att det kan påverka deltagare negativt. Detta är dock fortfarande ett underforskat område.

Syfte: Huvudsyftet med denna avhandling är att undersöka hur RPEs kan påverka resultaten i studier av digitala alkoholinterventioner, och om det i sin tur påverkar resultaten från simuleringar av långsiktiga utfall.

Studier: För att uppnå målet med denna avhandling genomfördes fem studier. I den första studien utvecklades och användes en simuleringsmodell för att undersöka de långsiktiga effekterna av en digital alkoholintervention, inklusive förekomsten av 10 alkoholrelaterade sjukdomar, kvalitetsjusterade levnadsår (QALYs), och kostnader. Resultaten visade att tillgång till interventionen kunde minska antalet sjukdomsfall, särskilt alkoholrelaterad leversjukdom och levercancer, öka antalet QALYs, och sänka kostnaderna jämfört med att bara ge information om alkohol och hälsa. I Studie II gjordes en systematisk översikt för att undersöka vilka RPEs som har studerats inom alkoholforskning. Den systematiska översikten identifierade studier som undersökte RPEs från fyra designval: informerat samtycke, mätning, gruppallokering och väntelistkontrollgrupp. I Studie III och IV undersöktes väntelistdesigner närmare och effekterna av att bli allokerad till en väntelista uppskattades i en RCT. Resultaten från Studie III visade att deltagarna inte var neutrala till att bli placerade i en väntelistkontrollgrupp. Beskedet om att tillgången till interventionen skulle dröja hade en negativ inverkan på deltagarna. Studie IV visade att deltagare som placerades i en väntelistekontrollgrupp en månad senare var mer benägna att rapportera högre alkoholkonsumtion än de som fick interventionen direkt, men det fanns osäkerhet kring dessa uppskattningar. I Studie V kvantifierades påverkan av fyra RPEs på simulerade långsiktiga utfall av en digital alkoholintervention genom att ta hänsyn till påverkan av RPEs på den uppskattade interventionseffekten. Resultaten visade att om RPEs ignoreras kan det leda till både underskattning och överskattning av långsiktiga utfall, vilket potentiellt kan påverka policybeslut.

Slutsats: Spridningen av digitala alkoholinterventioner kan bidra till att minska alkoholrelaterade sjukdomar på ett kostnadseffektivt sätt. Även om studiedesignsval kan påverka resultat, förblir dessa interventioner kostnadseffektiva. I situationer där interventionseffekterna är små relativt den påverkan som RPEs har på effektestimat bör de dock noggrant övervägas och tas hänsyn till. Designvalen kan påverka resultaten och deltagarnas beteende negativt. Ett exempel är användningen av väntelistor, som kan vara skadliga. Det är därför viktigt att hitta sätt att minska deras negativa effekter och överväga andra typer av kontrollgrupper.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Linköping: Linköping University Electronic Press, 2025. p. 53
Series
Linköping University Medical Dissertations, ISSN 0345-0082 ; 1955
Keywords
Research participation effects, Waiting list, Alcohol, Public Health, Health Economic Evaluations
National Category
Health Care Service and Management, Health Policy and Services and Health Economy
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-211625 (URN)10.3384/9789180759014 (DOI)9789180759007 (ISBN)9789180759014 (ISBN)
Public defence
2025-03-13, Hasselqvistsalen, Building 511, Campus US, Linköping, 09:00 (Swedish)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2025-02-10 Created: 2025-02-10 Last updated: 2025-02-19Bibliographically approved

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Ulfsdotter Gunnarsson, KatarinaHenriksson, MartinBendtsen, Marcus
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