When doing finite element analysis upon the structure of Saab’s aeroplanes a coarse global model of mainly shell elements is used to determine the load distribution for sizing the structure. At some parts of the aeroplane it is however desirable to implement a more detailed analysis. These areas are usually modelled with solid elements; the problem of connecting the fine local solid elements to the coarse global model will shell elements then arises.

This master thesis is preformed to investigate possible Global-Local methods to use for the structural analysis on Gripen. First a literature study of current methods on the market is made, thereafter a few methods are implemented on a generic test structure and later on also tested on a real detail of Gripen VU. The methods tested in this thesis are Mesh refinement in HyperWorks, RBE3 in HyperWorks, Glue in MSC Patran/Nastran and DMIG in MSC Nastran. The software is however not evaluated in this thesis, and a further investigation is recommended to find the most fitting software for this purpose. All analysis are performed with linear assumptions.

Mesh refinement is an integrated technique where the elements are gradually decreasing in size. Per definition, this technique cannot handle gaps, but it has almost identical results to the fine reference model.

RBE3 is a type of rigid body elements with zero stiffness, and is used as an interface element. RBE3 is possible to use to connect both Shell-To-Shell and Shell-To-Solid, and can handle offsets and gaps in the boundary between the global and local model.

Glue is a contact definition and is also available in other software under other names. The global respectively the local model is defined as contact bodies and a contact table is used to control the coupling. Glue works for both Shell-To-Shell and Shell-To-Solid couplings, but has problem dealing with offsets and gaps in the boundary between the global and local model.

DMIG is a superelement technique where the global model is divided into smaller sub-models which are mathematically connected. DMIG is only possible to use when the nodes on the boundary on the local model have the same position as the nodes at the boundary of the global model. Thus, it is not possible to only use DMIG as a Global-Local method, but can advantageously be combined with other methods.

The results indicate that the preferable method to use for Global-Local analysis is RBE3. To decrease the size of the files and demand of computational power, RBE3 can be combined with a superelement technique, for example DMIG.

Finally, it is important to consider the size of the local model. There will inevitably be boundary effect when performing a Global-Local analysis of the suggested type, and it is therefore important to make the local model big enough so that the boundary effects have faded before reaching the area of interest.

At high temperatures metallic materials behave in a viscous manner exemplified by strain rate dependence, stress relaxation and creep deformation. At low temperatures however, these effects are extremely small, and the behaviour is strain rate independent and shows no or very small relaxation effects. Finally there exists an intermediate region, in which the material behaviour is close to strain rate independent for high strain rates but at the same time shows time dependent inelastic effects, such as stress relaxation and creep. For IN792 this occurs at temperatures around 650 °C. The article describes the extension of a power-law viscoplastic model describing the behaviour of IN792 at 850 °C, also to describe the behaviour at 650 °C, by bounding the elastic-viscoplastic stress-space by a plastic yield surface. The model parameters have been estimated using data from creep test and tailored step relaxation tests, and the model fits well to both the step relaxation data aimed at resembling relevant component conditions and long term creep data. © 2003 Published by Elsevier B.V.

Det här projektet har genomförts på uppdrag av Saab, med syftet att designa och dimensionera ett stativ för infästning av en momentskärm. Denna momentskärm används vid provflygning av JAS39 Gripen för att vid behov upphäva ett okontrollerat tillstånd som kan inträffa vid tester av spinnfall och högalfaflygningar.

Det arbete som presenteras i den här rapporten är en del av ett större projekt där målet har varit att ta fram ett stativ. I den här rapporten presenteras analyser som har gjorts dels med handbokslösningar och klassisk hållfasthetslära, dels med FE-programmet Ansys för att kontrollera att det slutgiltiga konceptet uppfyller samtliga givna krav.

Vid dimensioneringen har ett iterativt arbetssätt använts, det har byggt på att först ta fram ett grundläggande koncept och sedan förbättra detta under projektets gång. Efter varje iteration har analyser gjorts av resultatet för att verifiera stativets funktion. För att inte påverka flygegenskaperna mer än nödvändigt har det även varit viktigt att minimera stativets vikt. Projektet har resulterat i ett koncept av titanlegeringen Ti-6Al-4V med en vikt på 67,7 kg.

This thesis concerns the robustness of structures considering various uncertainties. The overall objective is to evaluate and develop simulation based design methods in order to find solutions that are optimal both in the sense of handling typical load cases and minimising the variability of the response, i.e. robust optimal designs. Conventionally optimised structures may show a tendency of being sensitive to small perturbations in the design or loading conditions. These variations are of course inevitable. To create robust designs, it is necessary to account for all conceivable variations (or at least the influencing ones) in the design process. The thesis is divided into two parts. The first part serves as a theoretical background for this work. It includes introductions to the concept of robust design, basic statistics, optimisation theory and metamodelling. The second part consists of five appended papers on the topic.

The first and third papers focuse on the evaluation of robustness, given some dispersions in the input data. Established existing methods are applied, and for paper three, comparisons with experimentally evaluated dispersions on a larger system are made.

The second and fourth paper introduce two new approaches to perform robust optimisation, i.e. optimisations where the mean performance and the robustness in the objectives are simultaneously optimised. These methods are demonstrated both on an analytical example and on a Finite Element model design example. The fifth paper studies the variations in mechanical properties between several different batches of the same steel grade. A material model is fitted to each batch of material, whereby dispersions seen in test specimens are transferred to material model parameter variations. The correlations between both test and material model parameters are studied.

In the search of a lightweight design of automobiles, it is necessary to assure that a robust crashworthiness performance is achieved. Structures that are optimised to handle a finite number of load cases may perform poorly when subjected to various dispersions. Thus, uncertainties must be accounted for in the optimisation process. This paper presents an approach to optimisation where all design evaluations include an evaluation of the robustness. Metamodel approximations are applied both to the design space and the robustness evaluations, using Artifical Neural Networks and polynomials, respectively. The features of the robust optimisation approach are displayed in an analytical example, and further demonstrated in a large scale design example of front side members of a car. Different optimisation formulations are applied and it is shown that the proposed approach works well. It is also concluded that a robust optimisation puts higher demands on the FE model performance than normally.

In the search for lightweight automobile designs, it is necessary to assure that robust crashworthiness performance is achieved. Structures that are optimized to handle a finite number of load cases may perform poorly when subjected to various dispersions. Thus, uncertainties must be accounted for in the optimization process. This article presents an approach to optimization where all design evaluations include an evaluation of the robustness. Metamodel approximations are applied both to the design space and the robustness evaluations, using artifical neural networks and polynomials, respectively. The features of the robust optimization approach are displayed in an analytical example, and further demonstrated in a large-scale design example of front side members of a car. Different optimization formulations are applied and it is shown that the proposed approach works well. It is also concluded that a robust optimization puts higher demands on the finite element model performance than normally.

In robustness studies, variations of material properties are often represented by simple assumptions, such as scaling of stress-strain relations, often due to lack of knowledge or deeper understanding of the material physics and the material model applied. By performing material characterisation tests on several batches of a DP600 steel and fitting a phenomenological material model to each batch, this paper studies the dispersion of material model parameters, as well as correlations between both experimental and model parameters. It is concluded that some of the charcterisation tests may be omitted in the future, due to correlations found between parameters. The results may also be applied in a robustness study by inversely using the retrieved statistics to generate reasonable new sets of material model parameters. The methodology presented may be adopted for any other type of material characterisation process.

Background: Several studies on one-stage surgery in the treatment of the edentulous maxilla with implant-supported fixed prostheses have reported problems with removable provisional prostheses, which can load the implants in an uncontrollable manner during healing, and jeopardize healing. Immediate splinting of the implants with a fixed provisional prosthesis has been proposed to protect the bone-implant interface.

Purpose: This study used the finite element method (FEM) to simulate stresses induced in bone tissue surrounding uncoupled and splinted implants in the maxilla because of bite force loading, and to determine whether the differences in these stress levels are related to differences in observed bone losses associated with the two healing methods.

Materials and Methods: Stress levels in the maxilla were studied using the FEM program TRINITAS (Institute of Technology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden) in which all phases – preprocessing/modeling, equation solving, and postprocessing/evaluation – were simulated.

Results: Stress levels in bone tissue surrounding splinted implants were markedly lower than stress levels surrounding uncoupled implants by a factor of nearly 9.

Conclusion: From a mechanical viewpoint, FEM simulation supports the hypothesis that splinting reduces damage evolution in bone tissue, which agrees with clinical observations.

Developments in computer-aided engineering and the rapid growth of computational power have made simulation-driven process and product development efficient and useful since it enables detailed evaluation of product designs and their manufacturing processes. In the context of a sheet metal component, it is vital to predict possible failure both during its forming process and its subsequent usage. Accurate numerical models are needed in order to obtain trustworthy simulation results. Furthermore, the increasing demands imposed on improved weight-to-performance ratio for many products endorse the use of high-strength steels. These steels often show anisotropic behaviour and more complex hardening and fracturing compared to conventional steels. Consequently, demand for research on material and failure models suitable for these steels has increased.

In this work, the mechanical and fracture behaviour of two high-strength steels, Docol 600DP and Docol 1200M, have been studied under various deformation processes. Experimental results have been used both for material characterisation and for calibration of fracture criteria. One major requirement as concerns the fracture criteria studied is that they should be simple to apply in industrial applications, i.e. it should be possible to easily calibrate the fracture criteria in simple mechanical experiments and they should be efficient and accurate. Consequently, un-coupled phenomenological damage models have been the main focus throughout this work.

Detailed finite element models including accurate constitutive laws have be used to predict and capture material instabilities. Most of the fracture criteria studied are modifications of the plastic work to fracture. Ductile tensile and ductile shear types of fracture are of particular interest in sheet metal applications. For these fractures the modification of the plastic work relates to void coalescence and void collapse, respectively. Anisotropy in fracture behaviour can be captured by the introduction of a material directional function.

The dissertation consists of two parts. The first part contains theory and background. The second consists of five papers.

In this theses the high strength steel Docol 600DP and the ultra high strength steel Docol 1200M are studied. Constitutive laws and failure models are calibrated and veried by the use of experiments and numerical simulations. For the constitutive equations, an eight parameter high exponent yield surface has been adopted, representing the anisotropic behaviour, and a mixed isotropic-kinematic hardening has been used to capture non-linear strain paths.

For ductile sheet metals three dierent failure phenomena have been observed: (i) ductile fracture, (ii) shear fracture, and (iii) instability with localised necking. The models for describing the dierent failure types have been chosen with an attempt to use just a few tests in addition to these used for the constitutive model. In this work the ductile and shear fracture have been prescribed by models presented by Cockroft-Latham and Bressan-Williams, respectively. The instability phenomenon is described by the constitutive law and the nite element models. The results obtained are in general in good agreement with test results.

The thesis is divided into two main parts. The background, theoretical framework, mechanical experiments and nite element models are presented in the rst part. In the second part, two papers are appended.

In this work, selected fracture criteria are applied to predict the fracture of dualphase steel subjected to non-linear strain paths. Furthermore, the effects of manufacturing history are studied. Four fracture criteria were calibrated in three tests using standard specimens. The fracture criteria were first validated in the circular Nakajima test. A second validation test case was included in order to validate fracture prediction for non-linear strain paths. In this test a sheet metal component was manufactured and subsequently stretched until it fractured. All fracture criteria included in this study predict fracture during the Nakajima test with reasonable accuracy. In the second validation test however, the different fracture criteria show considerable diversity in accumulated damage during manufacturing which caused substantial scatter of the fracture prediction in the subsequent stretching. This shows that manufacturing history influences the prediction of fracture.

Failure in sheet metal structures of ductile material is usually caused by one of, or a combination of, ductile fracture, shear fracture or localised instability. In this paper the failure of the high strength steel Docol 600DP and the ultra high strength steel Docol 1200M is explored. The constitutive model used in this study includes plastic anisotropy and mixed isotropic-kinematic hardening. For modelling of the ductile and shear fracture the models presented by Cockroft–Latham and Bressan–Williams have been used. The instability phenomenon is described by the constitutive law and the finite element (FE) models. For calibration of the failure models and validation of the results, an extensive experimental series has been conducted including shear tests, plane strain tests and Nakajima tests. The geometries of the Nakajima tests have been chosen so that the first quadrant of the forming limit diagram (FLD) were covered. The results are presented both in an FLD and using prediction of force–displacement response of the Nakajima test employing element erosion during the FE simulations. The classical approach for failure prediction is to compare the principal plastic strains obtained from FE simulations with experimental determined forming limit curves (FLCs). It is well known that the experimental FLC requires proportional strains to be useful. In this work failure criteria, both of the instability and fracture, are proposed which can be used also for non-proportional strain paths.

The main objective of this work is to examine the use of anisotropic fracture criteria in order to predict fracture in dual-phase steel. The introduction of a material directional function into the fracture criterion was used in order to account for anisotropy observed in experiments. Selected fracture criteria were fist calibrated by ordinary tensile and in-plane shear tests using specimens cut in three material directions. In order to validate the performance, two types of validation tests were conducted. First, plane strain (notched tensile) tests were carried out in three material directions. Second, Nakajima tests with a waist of 130 mm were conducted, also in three material directions. The fit to the calibration tests was improved with all material directional functions compared to the isotropic criterion. Overall best performance was achieved when a material direction function based on the structural tensors was introduced.

Failure in ductile sheet metal structures is usually caused by one, or a combination of, ductile tensile fractures, ductile shear fractures or localised instability. In this paper the failure characteristics of the high strength steel Docol 600DP are explored. The study includes both experimental and numerical sections. In the experimental sections, the fracture surface of the sheet subjected to Nakajima tests is studied under the microscope with the aim of finding which failure mechanism causes the fracture. In the numerical sections, finite element (FE) simulations have been conducted using solid elements. From these simulations, local stresses and strains have been extracted and analysed with the aim of identifying the fracture dependency of the stress triaxiality and Lode parameter.

Delamination initiation and growth are analyzed by using a discrete cohesive crack model. The delamination is constrained to grow along a tied interface. The model is derived by postulating the existence of a maximum load surface which limits the adhesive forces in the process zone of the crack. The size of this maximum load surface is made dependent on the amount of dissipated crack opening work, such that the maximum load surface shrinks to zero as a predefined amount of work is consumed. A damage formulation is used to reduce the adhesive forces. Mode I, II and III loading or any combined loading is possible. An analytical solution is obtained for a single mode opening and the implications of this result on the governing equations is discussed. The delamination model is implemented in the finite element code LS-DYNA and simulation results are shown to be in agreement with experimental results. © 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

A thermal barrier coating (TBC) system subjected to thermal cycling will develop a microcrack partem near the interface between the metallic bond coat and the ceramic top coat. These small cracks link up and form internal TBC delaminations during repeated heating / cooling. After a longer time period, the internal delamination cracks will form a larger spallation damage, where the TBC is detached from the underlying material. Since cracks are initiated in multiple sites of the thermal barrier coating, the damage is initially considered to be governed by local stress conditions. The purpose of the present work is to compare experimental data with predictions of a physically based fatigue life model. The present study has been performed on plasma-sprayed TBCs where the interface geometry has been varied. In the present work, calculation of fatigue life is done for a number of cases under thermal fatigue loading. Different interface geometries are compared in order to understand the influence of variations in the TC/BC interface roughness on oxidation behaviour and thermal fatigue life. Thermal fatigue tests indicate that an increased surface roughness is beneficial from a fatigue life point of view.

     This book provides the latest scientific research regarding the importance of infrastructure charges in establishing competitive conditions in the railway market. The current charging regimes applied throughout the EU member states are analyzed as well as the planning and scheduling that determine how and when the company's resources will be used in the case of railway organizations. Railway noise emission and its reduction are considered among the most important topics in the future development of transportation systems. This book gives an overview on the noise emitted by wheels and rails from the basic emission mechanisms up to noise attenuation by means of passive/active control. The importance of the vertical track stiffness as a means to guide railway track bed design for high speed railway lines are discussed as well. A rational approach to substructure design is described, which it is hoped will further an understanding of the process of appropriate track design and enable the adaptation of existing design procedures to provide a realistic design for the conditions at hand.

In this thesis methods to account for non-linear effects in fatigue crack propagation simulations using FRANC3D are evaluated. FRANC3D is a crack growth software that supports automated crack growth in the FE mesh using the power of an external FE code.

Introductorily, a theoretical base in fracture mechanics, especially regarding crack propagation models is established. Furthermore, the functionality of FRANC3D is shown for several different applications.

As a benchmark for the investigated methods the associated results are compared to data from laboratory tests. The conditions in the test are closely modeled, but with relevant simplifications. The cyclic life-times are calculated using Paris’ law incorporating the stress intensity factors computed by FRANC3D and with material parameters derived from a different set of experiments than those simulated. When comparing the calculated cyclic life-time with the test data it can be seen that the pure linear elastic simulation, for this particular test set-up, gives nearly as good results as the investigated approaches that account for non-linear effects. 

An analytical Solution to the problem of a vibrating beam on an elastic foundation is presented. An application example of a concrete railway sleeper embedded in an elastic medium (the ballast) is provided. The sleeper is also elastically connected to the rails. The Rayleigh-Timoshenko (R-T) beam theory for a beam on an elastic foundation is used and eigenfrequencies are calculated. The beam (sleeper) is divided into three sections that have piecewise constant properties. The central portion of the beam is slightly thinner than the outer parts, and each one of the three parts may or may not be supported by the elastic foundation. The elastic connections to the rails are situated at the two joinings of the three sleeper sections.

Conclusions drawn are that the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory can be used to calculate two, or maximum three, eigenfrequencies of the sleeper. For higher frequencies, the R-T beam theory should be used. The foundation stiffness influences the lowest bending-mode eigenfrequency the most; higher eigenfrequencies are practically unaffected by the foundation stiffness. The influence of railpad (and rail) stiffness on the sleeper eigenfrequencies is negligible.

[No abstract available]

The track stiffness experienced by a train will vary along the track. Sometimes the stiffness variation may be very large within a short distance. One example is when an unsupported sleeper is hanging in the rail. Track stiffness is then, locally at that sleeper, very low. At insulation joints the bending stiffness of the rail has a discontinuity. A third example of an abrupt change of track stiffness is the transition from an embankment to a bridge.

The variations of track stiffness will induce variations in the wheel/rail contact force. This will intensify track degradation such as increased wear, fatigue, track settlement due to permanent deformation of the ballast and the substructure, and so on. In the work reported here the possibility to smooth out track stiffness variations by use of under-sleeper pads is discussed. It is demonstrated that the wheel/rail contact force variations can be made small by modifying the stiffness variations along the track.

The track stiffness experienced by a train will vary along the track. Sometimes the stiffness variation may be very large within a short distance. One example is when an unsupported sleeper is hanging in the rail. Track stiffness is then, locally at that sleeper, very low. At insulated joints the bending stiffness of the rail has a discontinuity implying a discontinuity also of the track stiffness. A third example of an abrupt change of track stiffness is the transition from an embankment to a bridge. At switches both mass and stiffness change rapidly.

The variations of track stiffness will induce variations in the wheel/rail contact force. This will intensify track degradation such as increased wear, fatigue, track settlement due to permanent deformation of the ballast and the substructure, and so on. As soon as the track geometry starts to deteriorate, the variations of the wheel/rail interaction forces will increase, and the track deterioration rate increases. In the work reported here the possibility to smooth out track stiffness variations is discussed. It is demonstrated that by modifying the stiffness variations along the track, for example by use of grouting or under-sleeper pads, the variations of the wheel/rail contact force may be considerably reduced.

The track stiffness experienced by a train will vary along the track. Sometimes the stiffness variation may be very large within a short distance. One example is when an unsupported sleeper is hanging in the rail. Track stiffness is then, locally at that sleeper, very low At insulated joints the bending stiffness of the rail has a discontinuity implying a discontinuity also of the track stiffness. A third example of an abrupt change of track stiffness is the transition from an embankment to a bridge. At switches both mass and stiffness change rapidly The variations of track stiffness will induce variations in the wheel/rail contact force. This will intensify track degradation such as increased wear fatigue, track settlement due to permanent deformation of the ballast and the substructure, and so on. As soon as the track geometry starts to deteriorate, the variations of the wheel/rail interaction forces will increase, and the track deterioration rate increases. In the work reported here the possibility to smooth out track stiffness variations is discussed. It is demonstrated that by modifying the stiffness variations along the track, for example by use of grouting or under-sleeper pads, the variations of the wheel/rail contact force may be considerably reduced.

Mathematical models to simulate railroad track settlements are reviewed and commented upon. There do not seem to be any generally accepted damage and settlement equations describing the long-term behaviour of the track. This also seems to be the case for the ballast material. Most descriptions of the settlement found in the literature are empirical, only different suggestions to describe the track settlement from a phenomenological point of view are available. The track settlement is mostly considered to be a function of number of loading cycles and/or a function of the magnitude of the loading. The settlement should also be a function of the properties of the ballast and subground materials, but very little has been found on this in the literature. By use of the finite element program LS-DYNA, a computer model (very simple) has been created to simulate the long-term behaviour of the track. The model consists of a rail, rigid sleepers, non-linear ballast springs (stiffnesses) and ballast damping. In a solid element beneath each ballast spring, track settlement can be accumulated. Settlement will occur if the stresses in that element exceed a yield limit of the element material. Also 'hanging sleepers' may be modelled and obtained as a result of the track settlement.

   Understanding the dynamics of railway vehicles, and indeed of the entire vehicle–track system, is critical to ensuring safe and economical operation of modern railways. As the challenges of higher speed and higher loads with very high levels of safety require ever more innovative engineering solutions, better understanding of the technical issues and use of new computer based tools is required. Encompassing the field from historical development to state-of-the-art modeling and simulation methods, Simon Iwnicki’s Handbook of Railway Vehicle Dynamicssets a new standard of authority and practicality in the study of railway vehicle dynamics.

Drawing on the experiences and research of leading international experts, this critical reference surveys the main areas of railway vehicle dynamics. Through mathematical analysis and practical examples, it builds a deep and functional understanding of the wheel–rail interface, suspension and suspension component design, simulation and testing of electrical and mechanical systems, interaction with surrounding infrastructure, and noise and vibration. In-depth discussions deconstruct the components of both vehicle and track systems, explain their contribution to dynamic behavior, and evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of various practical solutions. The book also considers the unique issues of railway tribology, gauging, and derailment.

Coverage of computer models, test procedures, roller rigs, and scale testing completes this essential handbook. Whether for the newcomer or the seasoned professional, the Handbook of Railway Vehicle Dynamics is an indispensable tool for modern railway vehicle design.

Teoretisk analys av vågutbredning i kontaktledning modellerad som en spänd sträng med böjstyvhet (eller axialbelastad balk) belastad med rörlig kraft.

Multidisciplinary design optimization (MDO) can be used as an effective tool to improve the design of automotive structures. Large-scale MDO problems typically involve several groups who must work concurrently and autonomously for reasons of efficiency. When performing MDO, a large number of designs need to be rated. Detailed simulation models used to assess automotive design proposals are often computationally expensive to evaluate. A useful MDO process must distribute work to the groups involved and be computationally efficient.

In this thesis, MDO methods are assessed in relation to the characteristics of automotive structural applications. Single-level optimization methods have a single optimizer, while multi-level optimization methods have a distributed optimization process. Collaborative optimization and analytical target cascading are possible choices of multi-level optimization methods for automotive structures. They distribute the design process, but are complex. One approach to handle the computationally demanding simulation models involves metamodel-based design optimization (MBDO), where metamodels are used as approximations of the detailed models during optimization studies. Metamodels can be created by individual groups prior to the optimization process, and therefore also offer a way of distributing work. A single-level optimization method in combination with metamodels is concluded to be the most straightforward way of implementing MDO into the development of automotive structures.

The aim of this work is to develop new conceptual designs for the fairings that are situated between the fin and the rear fuselage on the new version of the JAS 39 Gripen aircraft, called the Gripen E/F. The designs presented should show a profit in the form of lower weight. To achieve weight loss, the possibilities of using other construction materials other than those which are available at Saab today were studied. Therefore, a material survey was carried out in which the market for modern construction materials was studied to get an idea of today’s level of technology. Furthermore, a procedure was performed to produce new designs, which in turn can be used to create new concepts. The new concepts are then evaluated by means of systematic concept development. This resulted in a total of four concepts for the left side fairing and two for the right. These were then evaluated carefully, and finally, an estimation of the weight was made for the different concepts to see how it related to the original concept. In analysis of the four concepts, it was found that the temperature differences in the structure constitute a much larger problem factor than the materials coefficient of thermal expansion. This resulted in the exclusion of one of the concepts. The right side was treated somewhat more briefly as it quickly became clear that the only thing that prevented from making the right side fairing according to the methods already used today for the Gripen C/D was cost, which was considered to be outside the scope of this report. Finally the three concepts for the left side fairing were compiled and it became clear that there were significant benefits to be made, in terms of reduced weight, if one were to investigate the possibility of approving new construction materials for use at Saab.

På uppdrag av Saab ska fyra studenter vid Linköpings tekniska högskola designa och dimensionera ett momentskärmstativ till nya JAS39 Gripen E. På stativet fästs en skärmbehållare med en skärm, som används vid testflygning. Stativet sitter längst bak på planet, bakom sidorodret och ovanför stjärtkonen. Skärmen är en säkerhetsfunktion och kan skjutas ut och ge flygplanet ett stabiliserande tippmoment vid okontrollerade spinnfall som kan uppkomma vid högalfaflygning. Stativet ska klara av från uppdragsgivare givna lastfall och deformationskrav samtidigt som fokus skall ligga på viktreducering.

Projektet började med konceptgenerering för att få fram ett grundkoncept att arbeta vidare med. Materialundersökningar genomfördes med hjälp av materialdatabasen CES EduPack 2012 för att hitta ett material med bättre egenskaper än det som använts i tidigare stativ. Utifrån materialet undersöktes även fogar, tillåtna initialsprickor samt knäckningsrisk. Olika tvärsnitt undersöktes och för att ta reda på deformationer och spänningar genomfördes FEM-analyser i Ansys Workbench 14.0. Utifrån analysresultaten förändrades stativets design tills det klarade kraven.

Arbetet resulterade i ett fackverksstativ huvudsakligen uppbyggt av ihåliga kvadratiska balkar med yttermåtten 70 mm och innermåtten 63,8 mm. Maximala deformationen blir 53,1 mm, maximala spänningen 883 MPa och materialet som användes var titanlegeringen Ti-6Al-4V. Stativets balkar sammanfogas med lasersvets och det finns ingen risk för knäckning. Den tillåtna längden på en eventuell initialspricka är 0,7 mm för ytspricka och 0,9 mm för inre genomgående spricka. Det designade stativets slutvikt uppmättes till 60,5 kg.

Thermal barrier coatings (TBCs), when used in gas turbines, may fail through thermal fatigue, causing the ceramic top coat to spall off the metallic bond coat. The life prediction of TBCs often involves finite element modelling of the stress field close to the bond coat/top coat interface and thus relies on accurate modelling of the interface. The present research studies the influence of bond coat/top coat interface roughness on the thermal fatigue life of plasma sprayed TBCs. By using different spraying parameters, specimens with varying interface roughness were obtained. During thermal cycling it was found that higher interface roughness promoted longer thermal fatigue life. The interfaces were characterised by roughness parameters, such as Ra, Rq and Rq, as well as by autocorrelation, material ratio curves, probability plots and slope distribution. The variation of spray parameters was found to affect amplitude parameters, such as Ra, but not spacing parameters, such as RSm. Three different interface geometries were tried for finite element crack growth simulation: cosine, ellipse and triangular shape. The cosine model was found to be an appropriate interface model and a procedure for obtaining the necessary parameters, amplitude and wavelength, was suggested. The positive effect of high roughness on life was suggested to be due to a shift from predominantly interface failure, for low roughness, to predominantly top coat failure, for high roughness.

Topology optimization has developed rapidly, primarily with application on linear elastic structures subjected to static loadcases. In its basic form, an approximated optimization problem is formulated using analytical or semi-analytical methods to perform the sensitivity analysis. When an explicit finite element method is used to solve contact–impact problems, the sensitivities cannot easily be found. Hence, the engineer is forced to use numerical derivatives or other approaches. Since each finite element simulation of an impact problem may take days of computing time, the sensitivity-based methods are not a useful approach. Therefore, two alternative formulations for topology optimization are investigated in this work. The fundamental approach is to remove elements or, alternatively, change the element thicknesses based on the internal energy density distribution in the model. There is no automatic shift between the two methods within the existing algorithm. Within this formulation, it is possible to treat nonlinear effects, e.g., contact–impact and plasticity. Since no sensitivities are used, the updated design might be a step in the wrong direction for some finite elements. The load paths within the model will change if elements are removed or the element thicknesses are altered. Therefore, care should be taken with this procedure so that small steps are used, i.e., the change of the model should not be too large between two successive iterations and, therefore, the design parameters should not be altered too much. It is shown in this paper that the proposed method for topology optimization of a nonlinear problem gives similar result as a standard topology optimization procedures for the linear elastic case. Furthermore, the proposed procedures allow for topology optimization of nonlinear problems. The major restriction of the method is that responses in the optimization formulation must be coupled to the thickness updating procedure, e.g., constraint on a nodal displacement, acceleration level that is allowed.

Optimization of car structures is of great interest to the automotive industry. This work is concerned with structural optimization of a car body with the intent to increase the crashworthiness properties of the vehicle or decrease weight with the crashworthiness properties unaffected. In this work two different methodologies of constructing an intermediate approximation to the optimization problem are investigated, i.e. classical response surface methodology and Kriging. The major difference between the two methodologies is how the residuals between the true function value and the polynomial surface approximation value at a design point are treated.

Several different optimization problems have been investigated, both analytical problems as well as finite element impact problems.

The major conclusion is that even if the same kind of updating scheme is used both for Kriging and linear classic response surface methodology, Kriging improves the sequential behaviour of the optimization algorithm in the beginning of the optimization process. Problems may occur if a constraint is violated after several iterations and then classic response surface methodology seems to more easily be able to find a design point which satisfies the constraint.

The accuracy of different approximating response surfaces is investigated. In the classical response surface methodology (CRSM) the true response function is usually replaced with a low-order polynomial. In Kriging the true response function is replaced with a low-order polynomial and an error correcting function. In this paper the error part of the approximating response surface is obtained from “simple point Kriging” theory. The combined polynomial and error correcting function will be addressed as a Kriging surface approximation.

To be able to use Kriging the spatial correlation or covariance must be known. In this paper the error is assumed to have a normal distribution and the covariance to depend only on one parameter. The maximum-likelihood method is used to find the latter parameter. A weighted least-square procedure is used to determine the trend before simple point Kriging is used for the error function. In CRSM the surface approximation is determined through an ordinary least-square fit. In both cases the D-optimality criterion has been used to distribute the design points.

From this investigation we have found that a low-ordered polynomial assumption should be made with the Kriging approach. We have also concluded that Kriging better than CRSM resolves abrupt changes in the response, e.g. due to buckling, contact or plastic deformation.

This paper describes the methodology used during the development of an energy absorbing Frontal Underrun Protection device (eaFUP). The aim of this study is to show how different optimisation methods can be used at different stages during the design process. It also shows one approach to derive an optimal design taking several different design alternatives into account, each of which consists of several different materials. The outcome of the optimisation process is three different designs of the eaFUP.

The importance of contact and friction problems in different application areas is discussed. Methods and algorithms for numerical solutions using the finite element method are presented. Both elastic and elastic plastic materials are included as well as combination of contact and crack problems. The methods are applied to practical applications such as bolted joints, lugs and roller bearings.

The fatigue life of a roller bearing is heavily influenced by the crowning profile of the rollers. The pressure distribution for different types of crowning has been studied. For solving this three-dimensional contact problem a numerical procedure for analysis of general elasto-static contact problems has been used. The method is based on an incremental and iterative algorithm applied to a set of linear equations established with finite element technique. The contact surfaces are assumed to be perfectly smooth, dry and frictionless. The pressure distribution between the bodies has been compared with results obtained from other methods. The influence on the pressure distribution by the free boundary at the end of the finite cylinders has also been investigated. It is also shown that it is possible to use the same finite element model to study different types of crowning, thus making it efficient to perform paramater surveys. A method of obtaining required or ‘optimal’ pressure distribution is suggested.

A micromechanical model describing the martensitic transformation on the grain scale has been developed, using Finite Elements. First results gained from the simulation illustrate how the morphological evolution within the grain is directly controlled by the internal stress state. The reversible and irreversible part of transformation "plasticity" strain and their evolution with the transformation can then be obtained from these calculations.

In the general framework of a macroscopically coherent phase transition, the mechanical and thermodynamical behaviour of a two-phase volume element under structural evolution will be investigated and discussed. The identification of internal entropy production will then allow to formulate a general evolution condition for such a system and the internal stress state will appear to influence strongly the transformation behaviour, via the interface. The case of a martensitic transformation is considered. From that rigourous mechanical approach, we obtain the thermodynamical balance equation used for martensitic transformation.