Long-standing musculoskeletal pain has many dimensions. Physiotherapy lacks a tested method of dialogue with which physiotherapists and patients can together explore pain in all its complexity. The present aim was to find out how physiotherapists experienced the influence of systematically prepared key questioning on their relation to, and understanding of, patients with long-standing pain. A group of six physiotherapists with long experience of pain rehabilitation used such questions in their encounters with their patients. Two periods of work with the questions were followed by discussions in which the physiotherapists shared their experience in a joint focus group. Verbatim transcripts of the discussions constitute the data of the study. A phenomenographic method was used for the analysis. The responses to the key questions gave the physiotherapists an insight into the patient as a person. The questions started a process of change in the patient, and changed the physiotherapists relation to her or him. The patient expressed feelings and experience, and this also seemed to encourage a change in chosen coping strategies. This new content of the interaction challenged the physiotherapists role, thus raising questions about her professional mandate.

Heart failure (HF) is a common condition with which high mortality, morbidity, and poor quality of life are associated. It has previously been shown that use of HF management programmes (HFMPs) in HF clinics can be beneficial. The purpose of this study was to evaluate if the use of HFMPs also has beneficial effects on HF patients in primary healthcare (PHC). less thanbrgreater than less thanbrgreater thanThis is a randomized, prospective, open-label study including 160 patients from five PHC centres with systolic HF and a mean age of 75 years (standard deviation 7.8). In the intervention group, an intensive follow-up was performed by HF nurses and physicians providing information and education about HF and the optimization of HF treatment according to recognized guidelines. There was a significant improvement of composite endpoints in the intervention group. Significantly more patients with reduced N-terminal pro brain natriuretic peptide (P 0.012), improved cardiac function (P 0.03), fewer healthcare contacts (P 0.04), and fewer emergency room visits and admittances (P 0.0002 and P 0.03, respectively) could be seen in the intervention group when compared with the control group. less thanbrgreater than less thanbrgreater thanThe use of a HFMP in a PHC setting was found to have beneficial effects in terms of reducing the number of healthcare contacts and hospital admissions, and improving cardiac function in patients with systolic HF, even if the result should be interpreted with caution. It can therefore be recommended that HFMPs should be used in PHC.

Background: Antibodies present in coeliac disease may occur in IgA-nephropathy. This raises the question of food intolerance in the disease. Evidence for a true correlation between the two disorders has however been scarce.

Design: Sera from 89 patients with IgA-nephropathy and 13 other patients with IgA deposits in the glomeruli of kidney biopsies were analysed for IgA-antibodies to gliadin, endomysium and tissue transglutaminase (92/102 patients).

Results: Eleven out of 89 (12.4%) of the patients with IgA-nephropathy and five of the 13 others (38%) had elevated titres of IgA-antibodies to gliadin but, in all cases but one, normal IgA-antibodies to endomysium. Patients with IgA-nephropathy and elevated IgA-antibodies to gliadin had elevated total serum IgA more frequently than patients who had not (p<0.01). Two patients with IgA-nephropathy and one with Hennoch Schönlein's purpura had elevated IgA-antibodies to tissue transglutaminase.

Small bowel biopsy in 7 out of 11 IgA-antibodies to gliadin positive patients with IgA-nephropathy was pathologic in three cases (two with Marsh I). One patient with chronic glomerulnephritis also had Marsh I.

Conclusions: We found no increased frequency of verified coeliac disease in 89 patients with IgA-nephropathy. Two patients with IgA-nephropathy and one patient with chronic glomerulonephritis with IgA deposits in the kidney biopsy had a Marsh I histopathology. The findings suggest a possible link of celiac disease to IgA-nephropathy and a role for antibodies to food antigens in this disorder.

Background

Depressive disorders have been associated with a number of co-morbidities, and we   hypothesized that patients with a depression diagnosis would be heavy users of health   care services, not only when first evaluated for depression, but also for preceding   years. The aim of this study was to investigate whether increased health care utilisation   and co-morbidity could be seen during five years prior to an initial diagnosis of   depression.

Methods

We used a longitudinal register-based study design. The setting comprised the general   population in the county of Östergötland, south-east Sweden. All 2470 patients who   were 20 years or older in 2006 and who received a new diagnosis of depression (F32   according to ICD-10) in 2006, were selected and followed back to the year 2001, five   years before their depression diagnosis. A control group was randomly selected among   those who were aged 20 years or over in 2006 and who had received no depression diagnosis   during the period 2001-2006.

Results

Predictors of a depression diagnosis were a high number of physician visits, female   gender, age below 60, age above 80 and a low socioeconomic status.

Patients who received a diagnosis of depression used twice the amount of health care   (e.g. physician visits and hospital days) during the five year period prior to diagnosis   compared to the control group. A particularly strong increase in health care utilisation   was seen the last year before diagnosis. These findings were supported with a high   level of co-morbidity as for example musculoskeletal disorders during the whole five-year   period for patients with a depression diagnosis.

Conclusions

Predictors of a depression diagnosis were a high number of physician visits, female   gender, age below 60, age above 80 and a low socioeconomic status. To find early signs   of depression in the clinical setting and to use a preventive strategy to handle these   patients is important.

Background. Respiratory tract infections (RTI) in children is the most common cause of prescription of antibiotics. It is important to describe and analyse non-medical factors in order to develop more rational use of antibiotics. Objectives. To compare families with high and low concern about infectious illness with regard to social variables, perception of infection proneness and beliefs in antibiotics and to relate the concern for infectious illness to reported morbidity, physician consultations and antibiotic prescriptions for the 18-month-old child in the family. Methods. A prospective, population-based survey was performed. During 1 month, all infectious symptoms, physician consultations and antibiotic treatments for 18-month-old children were noted. The 818 families also answered questions about their socio-economic situation, illness perception and concern about infectious illness. Results. High concern about infectious illness was associated with more frequent physicians consultations and more prescriptions of antibiotics. There was no significant difference in reported days with symptoms of RTI, but the parents more often experienced their children with RTI without fever as being ill. The variables of infection proneness in the child, inadequate beliefs in antibiotics and the factor of being the only child were important explanatory factors for concern about infectious illness. Conclusions. High concern about infectious illness is an important determining factor for physician consultations and antibiotic prescription for small children. An adequate consultation, where the doctor deals with the parents' worries and gives appropriate information about symptoms and disease, might contribute to less antibiotic prescribing with preserved parental satisfaction. © Published by Oxford University Press.

Background Few studies focus on how physicians evaluate pain in foreign-born patients with varying cultural backgrounds. This study aimed to compare pain ratings [visual analogue scale (VAS) 0100] done by Swedish primary care physicians and their patients, and to analyse which factors predicted physicians higher ratings of pain in patients aged 1845 years with long-standing disabling back pain. Methods The two physicians jointly carried out the somatic and psychiatric diagnostic evaluations and alternated as consulting doctor or observer. One-third of the consultations were interpreted. Towards the end of the consultations, the patients rated their pain intensity right now (patients VAS). After the patient had left, the two physicians independently rated how much pain they thought the patient had, without looking at the patients VAS score. The mean of the two doctors VAS values (physicians VAS) for each patient was used in the logistic regression calculations of odds ratios (OR) in main effect models for physicians VAS above median (md) with patients sex, education, origin, depression, psychosocial stress and pain sites as explanatory variables. Results Physicians VAS values were significantly lower (md 15) than patients VAS (md 66; women md 73, men md 52). The ratings showed no significant association with whether the physician was acting as consultant or observer. The higher physician VAS was only predicted by findings of multiple pain sites. Conclusions Physicians appear to overlook psychological and emotional aspects when rating the pain of patients from other cultural backgrounds. This finding highlights a potential problem in multicultural care settings.

Background: The aim of this study was to analyse the clinical decision making strategies of GPs with regard to the whole range of problems encountered in everyday work. less thanbrgreater than less thanbrgreater thanMethods: A prospective questionnaire study was carried through, where 16 General practitioners in Sweden registered consecutively 378 problems in 366 patients. less thanbrgreater than less thanbrgreater thanResults: 68.3% of the problems were registered as somatic, 5.8% as psychosocial and 25.9% as both somatic and psychosocial. When the problem was characterised as somatic the main emphasis was most often on the symptoms only, and when the problem was psychosocial main emphasis was given to the person. Immediate, inductive, decision-making contrary to gradual, analytical, was used for about half of the problems. Immediate decision-making was less often used when problems were registered as both somatic and psychosocial and focus was on both the symptoms and the person. When immediate decision-making was used the GPs were significantly more often certain of their identification of the problem and significantly more satisfied with their consultation. Rules of thumb in consultations registered as somatic with emphasis on symptoms only did not include any reference to the individual patient. In consultations registered as psychosocial with emphasis on the person, rules of thumb often included reference to the patient as a known person. less thanbrgreater than less thanbrgreater thanConclusions: The decision-making (immediate or gradual) registered by the GPs seemed to have been adjusted on the symptom or on the patient as a person. Our results indicate that the GPs seem to recognise immediately both problems and persons, hence the quintessence of the expert skill of the GP as developed through experience.

Background: General practice operates at the point of intersection between health care as a medical-technological and a humanistic enterprise, as manifested through the coherent attention given to both the patient as a person and to the disease.

Objective: To analyse the problem-solving strategies of GPs with regard to problems encountered and presumed patient outcomes throughout the range of problems and patients encountered in the everyday work of the GP.

Methods: Sixteen GPs from different areas of Sweden filled out questionnaires concerning 15-30 of their recent consecutive consultations.

Results: In 94% of the consultations a somatic problem was registered, in 28% of these together with a psychosocial problem. Only a small fraction (5.8%) was registered as psychosocial problems only. In most of the consultations characterised as somatic, the main emphasis was on the symptoms only, whereas emphasis was given only to the person in consultations where the problem was registered as psychosocial. Immediate problem solving was used in about half of the consultations, where the patients were more often considered to be reassured, cope better and to be satisfied. With increasing psychosocial content of the consultations, the GPs registered more dissatisfaction, both for themselves and their patients.

Limitations: The GPs were not randomly selected and the results are based solely on the GPs perceptions.

Conclusions: The GPs seemed to adjust their problem solving (immediate or gradual) to the registered problem and furthermore adjust the immediate problem solving, focusing either on the problem or on the patient as a person. This might be regarded as the quintessence of the expert skill of the experienced GP.

A diagnosis-antibiotic prescribing study was performed in 5 counties in Sweden during 1week in November in the y 2000 and 2002, respectively. As part of the study, the characteristics and clinical management of patients who received diagnoses of urinary tract infections (UTIs) (n=1564) in primary care, were analysed. 85% of the visits were by women, and 74% of all consultations were diagnosed as lower UTIs. One or more diagnostic tests were performed in 98% of the women with suspected lower or recurrent UTIs and 95% were prescribed an antibiotic. The most commonly prescribed antibiotics for lower UTIs were trimethoprim followed by pivmecillinam and a quinolone. The study indicated a change in antibiotic prescribing with improved adherence to the national recommendations. There was an increase of prescribed nitrofurantoin and a decrease of prescribed quinolones to women with lower UTIs between the studied y. Furthermore, 3-d treatment with trimethoprim increased although the prescribed duration was mostly 7 d. In contrast to the guidelines, few urine cultures were performed. The study highlights the necessity of updating the guidelines for the management of lower UTIs in general practice.

The aim of this study is to present diagnostic patterns, diagnostics used and antibiotic treatment in relation to guidelines in 3 repeated diagnosis-prescription studies conducted simultaneously in general practice in 5 Swedish counties, during 1 week in November 2000, 2002 and 2005. General practitioners (GPs) at the participating health centres were asked to complete a form for all patients with symptoms of an infectious disease. During the studied periods a total of 15,371 consultations was registered. Consultations with GPs diagnosed as respiratory tract infection (RTI), especially consultations for sore throat, decreased considerably between y 2000 and 2005. The percentage of patients allocated an RTI diagnosis and prescribed an antibiotic declined significantly from 54% to 49% and the decline was most pronounced among children. Penicillin V remained the dominant antibiotic prescribed throughout the study periods. For lower urinary tract infections there was a significant change in choice of prescribed antibiotics with an increase for pivmecillinam and nitrofurantoin and a decrease for trimethoprim, in accordance with recommendations. The results indicate a quite close adherence to current guidelines, with changes in the pattern of consultations as well as in the management of infectious diseases in general practice in Sweden.

Background and aims. Patients’ consultations with GPs can deal with a wide range of conditions and problems. Generally, consultation outcomes have been considered in evaluations but outcome has a meaning for elaboration of care beyond the graduating role of quality and other evaluation instruments. Knowledge about outcomes is needed for understanding and development. The aim of this thesis was to investigate outcomes of GPs’ consultations as directly experienced by patients and GPs and to investigate connections between clinical strategies and presumed patient outcomes.

Methods. First, concepts describing outcomes from patients’ and GPs’ viewpoints were developed from interviews in groups and individually. Secondly, based on this, questionnaires about the consultation outcomes were formulated. Then, patients and GPs answered questionnaires regarding the same recent consultation. The numbers of the different outcomes were counted and the experiences of outcomes from the same consultations were compared. Finally, another questionnaire including both the GP outcome questions and questions about the clinical situation and decisions made was answered by GPs.

Results. Concepts describing consultation outcomes were brought forward. Cure/symptom relief, reassurance, patient understanding and satisfaction were used by both patients and GPs to describe outcome of consultations. Only patients described as outcomes a confirmation of their ideas and a change in self-perception. GPs, but not patients, described the patient outcomes in terms of check-up and coping. Besides this, GPs also described other outcomes that concerned relationship-building, a change of surgery routines and self-evaluation. Selfevaluation was related to a perceived collegial consensus about right and wrong. The concordance between GPs and patients assessing the same consultations was high for satisfaction, intermediate for patient understanding and low for belief in cure/symptom relief. Clinical strategies were linked to outcomes. Immediate problem solving was registered in about half the consultations. When immediate problem solving was registered the patients were supposed to be more reassured, satisfied and coped better than after gradual problem solving. With increasing psychosocial content of the consultation the GPs registered more dissatisfaction both for themselves and their patients.

Conclusions. Change in self- perception was a prominent patient outcome. GPs’ self-evaluations ought to have the inherent possibility to serve as a basis for development of general practice.

The entire map of the encountered outcome concepts can serve as a basis for further research and development. The mapping of concepts can be of help when prioritising. Knowledge about the total picture of consultation outcomes can help the GP to understand the patients’ worlds better. It can also contribute to a realistic picture of possible consultation outcomes. The GPs seemed to adjust their problem solving (immediate or gradual) to the registered problem and furthermore adjust the immediate problem solving, focusing either on the problem or on the patient as a person.

BACKGROUND: Evaluation of outcome in general practice can be seen from different viewpoints. In this study we focus on the concepts patients use to describe the outcome of a consultation with a GP.

METHOD: Patients were interviewed within a week after a consultation with a GP. The interviews were made with 20 patients in 5 focus groups and 8 individually. They were analysed with a phenomenographic research approach.

RESULTS: From the patient's perspective, the outcome of a consultation is about cure or symptom relief, understanding, confirmation, reassurance, change in self-perception and satisfaction.

CONCLUSION: General practice consultations are often more important for patients than generally supposed. Understanding is the most basic concept.

Background: Outcomes from GPs consultations have been measured mainly with disease specific measures and with patient questionnaires about health, satisfaction, enablement and quality. The aim of this study was to explore GPs conceptions of consultation outcomes.

Methods: Interviews with 17 GPs in groups and individually about consultation outcomes from recently performed consultations were analysed with a phenomenographic research approach.

Results: The GPs conceived outcomes in four ways: patient outcomes, GPs self-evaluation, relationship building and change of surgery routines.

Conclusion: Patient outcomes, as conceived by the GPs, were generally congruent with those that had been taken up in outcome studies. Relationship building and change of surgery routines were outcomes in preparation for consultations to come. GPs made self-assessments related to internalized norms, grounded on a perceived collegial professional consensus. Considerations of such different aspects of outcomes can inspire professional development.

Objective: To investigate GPs’ perceptions of consultation outcomes and to investigate the associations between these and outcomes perceived by the patients. Design: 25 GPs and 10 patients for each GP filled in a questionnaire about the outcome of the same consultation. The questions in the questionnaires were formulated from concepts found in preceding qualitative studies. Their answers were analysed and compared. Setting: GPs and patients from 16 group practices in Norrbotten, Sweden. Results: The GPs had the apprehension that their consultations would lead to cure/symptom relief in half of their consultations. They believed that their patients were satisfied up to 90% and that up to 75% had been reassured, understood more or could cope better. The GPs were satisfied themselves with up to 95% of the consultations, they enhanced their relationship to their patient up to 70%. Their affirmative concordance with their patients was high regarding satisfaction, intermediate regarding patient reassurance and patient understanding and lowest regarding cure/symptom relief.

Conclusion: The GPs’ were lacking in their ability to assess the patients’ increased understanding and the concordance between their own and the patients’ expectation of cure/symptom relief was low.

Background: In Sweden three key criteria are used for priority setting: severity of the health condition; patient benefit; and cost-effectiveness. They are derived from the ethical principles established by the Swedish parliament 1997 but have been used only to a limited extent in primary care. The aim of this study was to describe and analyse: 1) GPs, nurses, and patients prioritising in routine primary care 2) The association between the three key priority setting criteria and the overall priority assigned by the GPs and nurses to individual patients. less thanbrgreater than less thanbrgreater thanMethods: Paired questionnaires were distributed to all patients and the GPs or nurses they had contact with during a 2-week period at four health centres in Sweden. The staff registered the health conditions or health problem, and the planned intervention. Then they estimated the severity of the health condition, the expected patient benefit, and the cost-effectiveness of the planned intervention. Both the staff and the patients reported their overall prioritisation of the patient. In total, 1851 paired questionnaires were collected. less thanbrgreater than less thanbrgreater thanResults: Compared to the medical staff, the patients assigned relatively higher priority to acute/minor conditions than to preventive check-ups for chronic conditions. Severity of the health condition was the priority setting criterion that had the strongest association with the overall priority for the staff as a whole, but for the GPs it was cost-effectiveness. less thanbrgreater than less thanbrgreater thanConclusions: The challenge for primary care providers is to balance the patients demands with medical needs and cost-effectiveness. Transparent priority setting in primary care might contribute to a greater consensus between GPs and nurses on how to use the key priority setting criteria.

Background: Swedish health care authorities use three key criteria to produce national guidelines for local priority setting: severity of the health condition, expected patient benefit, and cost-effectiveness of medical intervention. Priority setting in primary health care (PHC) has significant implications for health costs and outcomes in the health care system. Nevertheless, these guidelines have been implemented to a very limited degree in PHC. The objective of the study was to qualitatively assess how general practitioners (GPs) and nurses perceive the application of the three key priority-setting criteria. Methods: Focus groups were held with GPs and nurses at primary health care centres, where the staff had a short period of experience in using the criteria for prioritising in their daily work. Results: The staff found the three key priority-setting criteria (severity, patient benefit, and cost-effectiveness) to be valuable for priority setting in PHC. However, when the criteria were applied in PHC, three additional dimensions were identified: 1) viewpoint (medical or patients), 2) timeframe (now or later), and 3) evidence level (group or individual). Conclusions: The three key priority-setting criteria were useful. Considering the three additional dimensions might enhance implementation of national guidelines in PHC and is probably a prerequisite for the criteria to be useful in priority setting for individual patients.

OBJECTIVE: To analyse attitudes to priority setting among patients in Swedish primary healthcare. DESIGN: A questionnaire was given to patients comprising statements on attitudes towards prioritizing, on the role of politicians and healthcare staff in prioritizing, and on patient satisfaction with the outcome of their contact with primary healthcare (PHC). SETTINGS: Four healthcare centres in Sweden, chosen through purposive sampling. PARTICIPANTS: All the patients in contact with the health centres during a two-week period in 2004 (2517 questionnaires, 72% returned). MAIN OUTCOMES: Patient attitudes to priority setting and satisfaction with the outcome of their contact. RESULTS: More than 75% of the patients agreed with statements like "Public health services should always provide the best possible care, irrespective of cost". Almost three-quarters of the patients wanted healthcare staff rather than politicians to make decisions on priority setting. Younger patients and males were more positive towards priority setting and they also had a more positive view of the role of politicians. Less than 10% of the patients experienced some kind of economic rationing but the majority of these patients were satisfied with their contact with primary care. CONCLUSIONS: Primary care patient opinions concerning priority setting are a challenge for both politicians and GPs. The fact that males and younger patients are less negative to prioritizing may pave the way for a future dialogue between politicians and the general public.

Background: Rationing is a reality in all health care, but little is known about day-to-day rationing in routine primary health care (PHC). This study aims to explore strategies to handle limited of resources in Swedish routine primary care.

Methods: Data were compiled from 62 interviews with healthcare professionals (general practitioners, nurses, physiotherapists, and managers at primary care centres). A qualitative research method was applied in the analysis.

Results: The interviewed staff described perceptions of a general public with high expectations on PHC in combination with a lack of resources. Strategies to cope with scarce resources were avoiding rationing, ad hoc rationing, or planned rationing. Rationing was largely implicit and not based on ethical principles or other defined criteria. Trying to avoid rationing resulted in unintended rationing. Ad hoc rationing had undesired consequences, e.g. inadequate continuity of care and displacing certain patient groups, especially the chronically ill and the elderly. The staff expressed a need for support and for applicable guidelines, and called for policy statements based on priority decisions to help manage the situation.

Conclusions: The interviews suggested a need to improve the transparency of priority setting procedures in PHC, although the nature of the PHC setting presents special challenges. Improving transparency could, in turn, improve equity and the efficient use of resources in PHC.

Objective. To explore the association between abdominal obesity and insulin resistance in patients with type 2 diabetes. Design. A cross-sectional observational study. Setting. Primary care in Skara, Sweden. Subjects. A total of 198 men and 186 women with type 2 diabetes who consecutively completed an annual check-up in 1992-1993. Main outcome measures. Abdominal obesity was defined according to criteria for the metabolic syndrome using the waist circumference (WC): > 102 cm for men and > 88 cm for women. Insulin resistance was estimated using the Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA), and was dichotomized by the 75th percentile (IR). Results. Abdominal obesity was found in 66 men (33%), and in 106 women (57%). Pearson's correlation coefficients between components of the metabolic syndrome and IR were statistically significant for WC, waist-hip ratio, serum triglycerides, and HDL cholesterol, and were higher for WC (0.40) than for waist-hip ratio (0.23) in both genders (p < 0.001). The association between WC and IR was challenged by successively entering other components of the metabolic syndrome into the model in a logistic regression. In the final model, adjusting for differences in age, systolic blood pressure, HbA1c, serum triglycerides, HDL cholesterol, and microalbuminuria, the association remained statistically significant both in men (OR 8.6, 95% CI 3.0-25.2, p < 0.001), and in women (OR 5.6, 95% CI 1.7-18.1, p = 0.004). Conclusions. WC provides a feasible measure for insulin resistance in the vast majority of subjects with type 2 diabetes. It is convenient and less expensive than direct means and could be used as a proxy for insulin resistance in population studies.

We investigated whether discoloured sputum and feeling unwell were associated with antibiotic prescription and benefit from antibiotic treatment for acute cough/lower respiratory tract infection (LTRI) in a prospective study of 3,402 adults in 13 countries. A two-level model investigated the association between producing discoloured sputum or feeling generally unwell and an antibiotic prescription. A three-level model investigated the association between an antibiotic prescription and symptom resolution. Patients producing discoloured sputum were prescribed antibiotics more frequently than those not producing sputum (OR 3.2, 95% CI 2.1-5.0), unlike those producing clear/white sputum (OR 0.95, 95% CI 0.61-1.48). Antibiotic prescription was not associated with a greater rate or magnitude of symptom score resolution (as measured by a 13-item questionnaire completed by patients each day) among those who: produced yellow (coefficient 0.00; p=0.68) or green (coefficient -0.01; p=0.11) sputum; reported any of three categories of feeling unwell; or produced discoloured sputum and felt generally unwell (coefficient -0.01; p=0.19). Adults with acute cough/LRTI presenting in primary care settings with discoloured sputum were prescribed antibiotics more often compared to those not producing sputum. Sputum colour, alone or together with feeling generally unwell, was not associated with recovery or benefit from antibiotic treatment.

Acute cough/lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI) is one of the commonest reasons for consulting and antibiotic prescribing. There are theoretical reasons why treatment with particular antibiotic classes may aid recovery more than others, but empirical, pragmatic evidence is lacking. We investigated whether treatment with a particular antibiotic class (amoxicillin) was more strongly associated with symptom score resolution and time to patients reporting recovery than each of eight other antibiotic classes or no antibiotic treatment for acute cough/LRTI. Clinicians recorded history, examination findings, symptom severity and antibiotic treatment for 3402 patients in a 13 country prospective observational study of adults presenting in 14 primary care research networks with acute cough/LRTI. 2714 patients completed a symptom score daily for up to 28 days and recorded the day on which they felt recovered. A three-level autoregressive moving average model (1,1) model investigated logged daily symptom scores to analyse symptom resolution. A two-level survival model analysed time to reported recovery. Clinical presentation was controlled for using clinician-recorded symptoms, sputum colour, temperature, age, co-morbidities, smoking status and duration of illness prior to consultation. Compared with amoxicillin, no antibiotic class (and no antibiotic treatment) was associated with clinically relevant improved symptom resolution (all coefficients in the range -0.02 to 0.01 and all P values greater than 0.12). No antibiotic class (and no antibiotic treatment) was associated with faster time to recovery than amoxicillin. Treatment by antibiotic class was not associated with symptom resolution or time to recovery in adults presenting to primary care with acute cough/LRTI.

Doel Ons doel was in kaart te brengen hoe vaak huisartsen in verschillende Europese landen antibiotica voorschrijven voor acute hoest, en welk effect dit heeft op het ziektebeloop.

Methode Wij verrichtten een cross-sectioneel prospectief observationeel onderzoek onder volwassen patiënten in 13 Europese landen die met een nieuwe of verergerende hoest bij de huisarts kwamen of bij wie de huisarts een infectie van de lage luchtwegen vermoedde. De huisartsen noteerden bij presentatie de symptomen en welk beleid zij volgden, de patiënten hielden 28 dagen een symptoomdagboek bij. Onze primaire uitkomstmaten waren het voorschrijven van antibiotica en het beloop van de symptomen in de tijd.

Resultaten Aan het onderzoek namen 384 huisartsen deel, die 3402 patiënten includeerden. Van 3296 (97%) patiënten ontvingen de onderzoekers een volledig registratieformulier en van 2560 (75%) patiënten een compleet symptoomdagboek. De ernst van de symptomen bij presentatie (gescoord door de huisarts op een schaal van 0 tot 100) varieerde van 19 in Spanje en Italië tot 38 in Zweden. In gemiddeld 53% van de episoden schreven de artsen antibiotica voor, maar dit varieerde per land van 20% tot bijna 90% (België 25,9%, Nederland 41,5%). Ook na correctie voor klinische presentatie en demografische kenmerken bleven de verschillen aanzienlijk. Noorse huisartsen schreven het minst vaak antibiotica voor (OR 0,18; 95%-BI 0,11 tot 0,30), Slowaakse het vaakst (OR 11,2; 95%-BI 6,20 tot 20,27). Ook het soort antibioticum varieerde sterk. Amoxicilline, het meest voorgeschreven middel, werd in Noorwegen het minst vaak gegeven (3% van de voorgeschreven antibiotica), in Engeland het vaakst (83%). Fluorochinolonen werden in sommige landen helemaal niet voorgeschreven, maar in Italië aan 18% van de patiënten. Patiënten die geen antibiotica kregen, herstelden nagenoeg even snel als patiënten die wel antibiotica kregen.

Conclusie De variatie in de klinische presentatie biedt geen verklaring voor de grote verschillen in het voorschrijven van antibiotica bij lageluchtweginfecties en/of hoest in Europa. Antibiotica hebben nauwelijks invloed op het herstel van de hoestklachten.

The aim of this study was to evaluate two implementation strategies for the introduction of a lifestyle intervention tool in primary health care (PHC), applying the RE-AIM framework to assess outcome. A computer-based tool for lifestyle intervention was introduced in PHC. A theory-based, explicit, implementation strategy was used at three centers, and an implicit strategy with a minimum of implementation efforts at three others. After 9 months a questionnaire was sent to staff members (n= 159) and data from a test database and county council registers were collected. The RE-AIM framework was applied to evaluate outcome in terms of reach, effectiveness, adoption and implementation. The response rate for the questionnaire was 73%. Significant differences in outcome were found between the strategies regarding reach, effectiveness and adoption, in favor of the explicit implementation strategy. Regarding the dimension implementation, no differences were found according to the implementation strategy. A theory-based implementation strategy including a testing period before using a new tool in daily practice seemed to be more successful than a strategy in which the tool was introduced and immediately used for patients.                 

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Background:In recent years there has been increasing interest in transferring new knowledge into health care practices, a process often referred to as implementation. The various subcultures that exist among health care workers may be an obstacle in this process. The aim of this study was to explore how professional groups and managers experienced the implementation of a new tool for lifestyle intervention in primary health care (PHC). The computer-based tool was introduced with the intention of facilitating the delivery of preventive services.

Methods:Focus group interviews with staff and individual interviews with managers at six PHC units in the southeast of Sweden were performed 9 months after the introduction of the new working tool. Staff interviews were conducted in groups according to profession, and were analysed using manifest content analysis. Experiences and opinions from the different staff groups and from managers were analysed.

Results: Implementation preconditions, opinions about the lifestyle test, and opinions about usage were the main areas identified. In each of the groups, managers and professionals, factors related to the existing subcultures seemed to influence their experiences of the implementation. Managers were visionary, GPs were reluctant, nurses were open, and nurse assistants were indifferent.

Conclusion: This study indicates that the existing subcultures in PHC influence how the implementation of an innovation is perceived by managers and the different professionals. In PHC, an organization with several subcultures and an established hierarchical structure, an implementation strategy aimed at all groups did not seem to result in a successful uptake of the new method.

The worldwide Health Promoting Hospital and Health Services (HPH) network was initiated by the World Health Organizations in the late 1980s. The goal of the network is to change the focus of health services from curing patients to also embrace disease prevention and health promotion. In Sweden the network started in 1996, and involves mainly hospitals and primary care. The network members collaborate in task forces, one of which is working on the tobacco issue. There is limited evidence on the value of working within an HPH organization. The aim of this study was to investigate the experiences of members of the Swedish HPH network tobacco task force. Focus group interviews with task force members were analyzed using implementation theory. Three themes, overall experiences of working with tobacco issues, experiences of working with. free from tobacco in connection with surgery., and experiences of work in the HPH tobacco task force, emerged from the interviews. The results show that working with the tobacco issue in the context of health-promoting hospitals and health services met with difficulties involving the following important factors: evidence, context, facilitation and adopter characteristics. Leadership, one contextual factor, at national and local level, seems to be crucial if the work is going to succeed. The tobacco task force of the HPH network is an important facilitator supporting the task.

Background. In recent decades international and national guidelines have been formulated to ensure that patients suffering from specific diseases receive evidence-based care. In 2004 the National Swedish Board of Health and Welfare (SoS) published guidelines concerning the management of patients with asthma and COPD. The guidelines identify quality indicators that should be fulfilled. The aim of this study was to survey structure and process indicators, according to the asthma and COPD guidelines, in primary health care, and to identify correlations between structure and process quality results. Methods. A cross-sectional study of existing structure by using a questionnaire, and a retrospective study of process quality based on a review of measures documented in asthma and COPD medical records. All 42 primary health care centres in the county council of Östergötland, Sweden, were included. Results. All centres showed high quality regarding structure, although there was a large difference in time reserved for Asthma and COPD Nurse Practice (ACNP). The difference in reserved time was reflected in process quality results. The time needed to reach the highest levels of spirometry and current smoking habit documentation was between 1 and 1 1/2 hours per week per 1000 patients registered at the centre. Less time resulted in fewer patients examined with spirometry, and fewer medical records with smoking habits documented. More time did not result in higher levels, but in more frequent contact with each patient. In the COPD group more time resulted in higher levels of pulse oximetry and weight registration. Conclusion. To provide asthma and COPD patients with high process quality in primary care according to national Swedish guidelines, at least one hour per week per 1000 patients registered at the primary health care centre should be reserved for ACNP. © 2008 Carlfjord and Lindberg, licensee BioMed Central Ltd.

Background: Preventive services and health promotion in terms of lifestyle counselling provided through primary health care (PHC) has the potential to reduce morbidity and mortality in the population. Health professionals in general are positive about and willing to develop a health-promoting and/or preventive role. A number of obstacles hindering PHC staff from addressing lifestyle issues have been identified, and one facilitator is the use of modern technology. When a computer-based tool for lifestyle intervention (CLT) was introduced at a number of PHC units in Sweden, this provided an opportunity to study staff perspectives on the subject. The aim of this study was to explore PHC staffs perceptions of handling lifestyle issues, including the consultation situation as well as the perceived usefulness of the CLT. less thanbrgreater than less thanbrgreater thanMethods: A qualitative study was conducted after the CLT had been in operation for 2 years. Six focus group interviews, one at each participating unit, including a total of 30 staff members with different professions participated. The interviews were designed to capture perceptions of addressing lifestyle issues, and of using the CLT. Interview data were analysed using manifest content analysis. less thanbrgreater than less thanbrgreater thanResults: Two main themes emerged from the interviews: a challenging task and confidence in handling lifestyle issues. The first theme covered the categories responsibilities and emotions, and the second theme covered the categories first contact, existing tools, and role of the CLT. Staff at the units showed commitment to health promotion/prevention, and saw that patients, caregivers, managers and politicians all have responsibilities regarding the issue. They expressed confidence in handling lifestyle-related conditions, but to a lesser extent had routines for general screening of lifestyle habits, and found addressing alcohol the most problematic issue. The CLT, intended to facilitate screening, was viewed as a complement, but was not considered an important tool for health promotion/prevention. less thanbrgreater than less thanbrgreater thanConclusion: Additional resources, for example in terms of manpower, may help to build the structures necessary for the health promotion/prevention task. Committed leaders could enhance the engagement among staff. Cooperation in multi-professional teams seems to be important, and methods or tools perceived by staff as compatible have a potential to be successfully implemented. Economic incentives rewarding quantity rather than quality appear to be frustrating to PHC staff.

Rational, aims and objectives: Sustainability of new methods implemented in health care is one of the most central issues in addressing the gap between research and practice, but is seldom assessed in implementation studies. The aim of this study was to evaluate the implementation of a new tool for lifestyle intervention in primary health care (PHC) 2 years after the introduction, and assess if the implementation strategy used influenced sustainability.

Method: A computer-based lifestyle intervention tool (CLT) was introduced at six PHC units in Sweden in 2008, using two implementation strategies: explicit and implicit. The main difference between the strategies was a 4-week test period followed by a decision session, included in the explicit strategy. Evaluations were performed after 6, 9 and 24 months. After 24 months, the RE-AIM framework was applied to assess and compare outcome according to strategy.

Results: A more positive outcome regarding Reach, Effectiveness, Adoption and Implementation in the explicit group could be almost completely attributed to one of the units. Maintenance was low and after 24 months, differences according to strategy were negligible.

Conclusion: After 24 months the most positive outcomes regarding all RE-AIM dimensions were found in one of the units where the explicit strategy was used. The explicit strategy per se had some effect on the dimension Effectiveness, but was not associated with sustainability overall. Staff at the most successful unit earlier had positive expectations regarding the CLT and found it compatible with existing routines.

Objectives To analyse how comorbidity among patients with back pain, depression and osteoarthritis influences healthcare costs per patient. A special focus was made on the distribution of costs for primary healthcare compared with specialist care, hospital care and drugs.

Design Population-based cross-sectional study.

Setting The County of Östergötland, Sweden.

Patients Data on diagnoses and healthcare costs for all 266 354 individuals between 20 and 75 years of age, who were residents of the County of Östergötland, Sweden, in the year 2006, were extracted from the local healthcare register and the national register of drug prescriptions.

Main outcome measures The effects of comorbidity on healthcare costs were estimated as interactions in regression models that also included age, sex, number of other health conditions and education.

Results The largest diagnosed group was back pain (11 178 patients) followed by depression (7412 patients) and osteoarthritis (5174 patients). The largest comorbidity subgroup was the combination of back pain and depression (772 patients), followed by the combination of back pain and osteoarthritis (527 patients) and the combination of depression and osteoarthritis (206 patients). For patients having both a depression diagnosis and a back pain diagnosis, there was a significant negative interaction effect on total healthcare costs. The average healthcare costs among patients with depression and back pain was SEK 11 806 lower for a patient with both diagnoses. In this comorbidity group, there were tendencies of a positive interaction for general practitioner visits and negative interactions for all other visits and hospital days. Small or no interactions at all were seen between depression diagnoses and osteoarthritis diagnoses.

Conclusions A small increase in primary healthcare visits in comorbid back pain and depression patients was accompanied with a substantial reduction in total healthcare costs and in hospital costs. Our results can be of value in analysing the cost effects of comorbidity and how the coordination of primary and secondary care may have an impact on healthcare costs.

The aims of the present study were to investigate adherence and side effects of statin therapy in elderly patients ($75 years)after primary statin prescription, to identify possible differences related to whether statin treatment was initiated in primary care or inhospital, and to investigate whether there was any correlation between side effects of statin therapy and statin dose or renal impairment.In two primary health care populations, all patients $75 years of age recently initiated on statin therapy were identified through thepatient data records (n = 90) and asked to complete a questionnaire.Of 68 subjects responding to the questionnaire, 87% reported adherenceto the statin therapy and 29% reported side effects. No statistically significant difference was seen for adherence or frequency ofside effects depending on whether therapy was initiated in primary care or in hospital. In

Background: Type 2 diabetes is a common disease with increased mortality and morbidity due to cardiovascular disease (CVD). This thesis is based on three studies that evaluated traditionally used and emerging risk markers to identify individuals with high-risk of developing CVD in middle-aged men and women with type 2 diabetes. One study was conducted to compare the equivalence between two different ultrasound techniques to measure intima-media thickness since IMT was used to evaluate subclinical atherosclerosis as a surrogate endpoint.

Methods: Data from the cohort study, cardiovascular risk in type 2 diabetes – a prospective study in primary care (CARDIPP) was used in paper I, III and IV. In paper I, baseline data from the first 247 subjects was analysed. Associations between traditionally measured lipids, apolipoproteins, glycaemic control and low-grade inflammation and IMT were analysed.

In paper III, the full baseline cohort, with data from 761 subjects from the CARDIPP study was cross-sectionally analysed regarding correlations between abdominal obesity measured as waist circumference (WC) and sagittal abdominal diameter (SAD), inflammatory markers and IMT and pulse wave velocity (PWV). In paper IV, the associations reported in paper I and III were prospectively investigated with data from the first year of follow-up four years after the baseline investigations in CARDIPP-revisited.

In paper II a study was performed on 24 young healthy subjects, both men and women. IMT was measured in the common carotid artery (CCA) and in the abdominal aorta (AA), by two skilled ultrasonographers, with 2 different ultrasound techniques in a randomised order.

Results: ApoB/apoA-I ratio (r=0.207, p=0.001), apoB (r=0.166, p=0.009) and non HDLcholesterol (nHDL-c) (0.129, p=0.046) correlated with IMT.

In CCA IMT was equivalent using B-mode- and M-mode respectively. However in AA, IMT was 11.5% thicker using B-mode.

Abdominal obesity were significantly correlated with; IL-6 and CRP (both p<0.001, WC and SAD respectively), IMT (WC p=0.012, SAD p=0.003) and PWV (p<0.001 WC and SAD respectively). Adjusting for age, sex, treatment with statins, systolic blood pressure (SBP), Body Mass Index (BMI), CRP and HbA1c, SAD (p=0.047) but not WC, remained associated with IMT.

There were significant correlations between apoB (r=0.144, p=0.03) and CRP (r=0.172, p=0.009) measured at baseline and IMT measured at follow-up. After adjustment for sex, age, treatment with statins and Hba1c, the associations remained statistically significant. HbA1c, total cholesterol or LDL-cholesterol did not correlate to IMT at follow-up. Baseline body mass index (BMI) (r=0.130, p=0.049), WC (r=0.147, p=0.027) and SAD (r=0.184, p=0.007) correlated to PWV at follow-up. Challenged with sex, SBP and HbA1c, the association between SAD, not WC nor BMI, and PWV remained statistically significant (p=0.036).

Conclusions: There was a significant association between apoB/apoA-I ratio and IMT. The association was independent of conventional lipids, CRP, glycaemic control and use of statins. Both SAD and WC were associated with inflammation, atherosclerosis and arterial stiffness. However, SAD was slightly more robustly associated to subclinical organ damage, compared with WC. Prospectively; apoB and CRP, but not LDL-cholesterol predicted increased subclinical atherosclerosis. Furthermore, SAD was more independent in predicting arterial stiffness over time, compared with WC, in middle-aged men and women with type 2 diabetes.

The two different ultrasound techniques, B-mode and M-mode, measured different IMT thickness in the aorta, emphasizing the importance of using similar technique when comparing the impact of absolute values of IMT on cardiovascular disease.

Measuring intima-media thickness (IMT) in the common carotid artery (CCA) is a valuable resource for the evaluation of subclinical atherosclerosis. The main objective of this study was to explore whether a B-mode ultrasound technique, Philips ATL, and an M-mode ultrasound technique, Wall Track System (WTS), show interchangeable results when measured in CCA and the abdominal aorta (AA). A total of 24 healthy, young subjects were examined. IMT and lumen diameter (LD) of the AA and the CCA were measured twice by two skilled ultrasonographers with two different ultrasound equipment B-mode: (Philips, ATL and M-mode: WTS).The intra-observer variability of IMT in CCA and AA using B-mode showed a coefficient of variation 8% and 9%, and with M-mode 11% and 15%, respectively. Interobserver variability of IMT in CCA and AA using B-mode was 6% and 12%, and with M-mode 11% and 18%, respectively. CCA IMT was 0·53 ± 0·07 and 0·53 ± 0·09 mm using B-mode and M-mode, respectively. However, in AA, IMT was 0·61 ± 0·5 and 0·54 ± 0·10 mm using B-mode and M-mode, respectively. Thus, AA IMT was 11·5% thicker using B-mode (P<0·01). We received adequate IMT readings from the carotid artery as well as the AA using two commonly used B-mode and M-mode techniques. B-mode technique seems to show less variability, especially in the AA. More importantly, the two techniques measured different IMT thickness in the aorta, emphasizing the importance of using similar technique when comparing the impact of absolute values of IMT on cardiovascular disease.

Aim: The aim of this study was to prospectively explore how laboratory and anthropometric risk factors predicted subclinical organ damage in 255 patients, with type 2 diabetes, after four years.

Methods: Baseline investigations were performed in 2006 and were repeated at follow-up in 2010. Carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) was evaluated by ultrasonography and aortic pulse wave velocity (PWV) was measured with applanation tonometry over the carotid and femoral arteries at baseline and at follow-up in a cohort of subjects with type 2 diabetes aged 55-65 years old.

Results: There were significant correlations between apolipoprotein B (apoB) (r= 0.144, p=0.03), C - reactive protein (CRP) (r=0.172, p=0.009) at baseline and IMT measured at follow-up. After adjustment for sex, age, treatment with statins and Hba1c, the associations remained statistically significant. HbA1c, total cholesterol or LDL-cholesterol did not correlate to IMT at follow-up. Baseline body mass index (BMI) (r=0.130, p=0.049), waist circumference (WC) (r=0.147, p=0.027) and sagittal Abdominal Diameter (SAD) (r=0.184, p=0.007) correlated to PWV at follow-up. Challenged with sex, SBP and HbA1c, the association between SAD, not WC nor BMI, and PWV remained statistically significant (p=0.036). In a stepwise linear regression, entering both SAD and WC, the association between SAD and PWV was stronger than the association between WC and PWV.

Conclusion: We conclude that apoB and CRP, but not LDL-cholesterol predicted subclinical atherosclerosis. Furthermore, SAD was more independent in predicting arterial stiffness over time, compared with WC, in middle-aged men and women with type 2 diabetes.

AIMS: To explore the association between carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) and the apolipoprotein B (apoB)/apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I) ratio compared with conventional lipids in middle-aged patients with Type 2 diabetes. METHODS: We analysed data from 247 patients with Type 2 diabetes, aged 55-66 years, in the Cardiovascular Risk factors in Patients with Diabetes-a Prospective study in Primary care (CARDIPP-1) study. Primary care nurses measured blood pressure and anthropometric characteristics. Blood samples were taken for laboratory analyses. The carotid IMT was determined by ultrasonography at the University Hospital in Linköping and at the County Hospital Ryhov, Jönköping, Sweden. RESULTS: The ApoB/apoA-I ratio (r = 0.207, P = 0.001), apoB (r = 0.166, P = 0.009) and non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (non-HDL-c) (r = 0.129, P = 0.046) correlated with IMT. Conventional lipids, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), glycated haemoglobin (HbA(1c)) and systolic blood pressure were not significantly correlated to IMT. A stepwise logistic regression analysis was conducted with IMT as the dependent variable and the apoB/apoA-I ratio, HbA(1c), hsCRP, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c), total cholesterol, non-HDL-c and treatment with statins as independent variables. Following adjustment for age and gender, only the apoB/apoA-I ratio remained significantly associated with IMT (odds ratio 4.3, 95% confidence intervals 1.7-10.8, P = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that there was a significant association between the apoB/apoA-I ratio and IMT in middle-aged patients with Type 2 diabetes. The association was independent of conventional lipids, hsCRP, glycaemic control and use of statins.

Objective - To find evidence of the effectiveness of physicians working in primary care.

Design - Systematic literature search in the Medline and Cochrane databases.

Material - Out of 7223 titles found in the search, 45 studies, comparing, from different aspects, primary care with specialist care, were extracted.

Main outcome measures - Health indicators, health care costs, quality of health care.

Results - Primary care contributed to improved public health, as expressed through different health parameters, and a lower utilisation of medical care leading to lower costs. Physicians working in primary care, in comparison with other specialists, took care of many diseases without loss of quality and often at lower cost. The organisation of primary care was important in respect of reimbursement by capita tion, more group practices, higher personal continuity, and having generalists as primary care physicians.

Conclusions - To compare the effectiveness of primary care and specialist care is a complex task and there are limitations in all studies. However, we have found evidence that increased accessibility to physicians working in primary care contributes to better health and lower total costs in the health care system. It is also clear that studies with evaluation of how to most effectively organise primary care are far too few. There is an extensive need for future research in this area, a suitable task for collaborative research between the Nordic countries.

Abstract

Knowledge about the need for care of elderly individuals in community dwellings and the factors affecting their needs and support is limited. The aim of this study was to characterize the frailty of a population of elderly individuals living in community dwellings in Sweden in relation to co-morbidity, use of drugs, and risk of severe conditions such as malnutrition, pressure ulcers, and falls. In 2008, 315 elderly individuals living in community dwellings were interviewed and examined as part of the SHADES-study. The elderly demonstrated co-morbidity (a mean of three diseases) and polypharmacy (an average of seven drugs). More than half the sample was at risk for malnutrition, one third was at risk for developing pressure ulcers, and nearly all (93%) had an increased risk of falling and a great majority had cognitive problems. Age, pulse pressure, body mass index, and specific items from the modified Norton scale (MNS), the Downton fall risk index (DFRI), and the mini nutritional assessment (MNA-SF) were related to different outcomes, defining the need for care and frailty. Based on the results of this study, we suggest a single set of items useful for understanding the need for care and to improve individual based care in community dwellings.

Background: Traditionally, classification of skin reactivity to ultraviolet (UV) light is based on self-estimation of tendency to burn and tan (Fitzpatricks classification). Although widely accepted, the model has shown to correlate poorly with actual UV sensitivity, measured by phototest. The aim of the present study was to investigate how self-estimated skin type, according to Fitzpatrick, and actual UV sensitivity measured by phototest correlate with sun exposure and protection. Methods: One hundred and sixty-six voluntary patients visiting their general practitioner for investigation of suspicious skin tumours were recruited for the study, and filled out a questionnaire, mapping sun habits and sun protection behaviour, based on five-point Likert responses. The patients reported their skin type (I-VI) according to Fitzpatrick, and a phototest was performed to determine the minimal erythema dose. Results: For most of the questions, high self-estimated UV sensitivity, according to Fitzpatrick, appeared to be associated with a higher level of sun avoidance/protection (P less than 0.05). For actual UV sensitivity, however, the difference in response distribution was only significant for sunscreen use, and did not show a similar apparent association related to the degree of UV sensitivity. Conclusion: Self-estimated skin UV sensitivity, according to Fitzpatricks classification, appears to be a stronger predictor of sun exposure and protection than actual UV sensitivity measured by phototest.

Background: Few attempts to present a comprehensive scoring instrument for sun exposure and protection have been made. The present paper aims to describe a possible set of questions suitable for such an instrument, comprising the most important aspects of sun exposure and protection. Methods: The material from a previously performed intervention study, using a questionnaire based on Likert scales and on the Transtheoretical Model of Behaviour Change (TTM), was utilised. 213 primary healthcare patients filled in the questionnaire and were randomised into two groups receiving sun protection advice, in Group 1 in letter-form, and in Group 2 orally during a doctor's consultation. In the original study, increased sun protection/readiness to increase sun protection was demonstrated for several items in Group 2, at six months. To compose a comprehensive scoring instrument, five questions concerning sun exposure/protection (intentional tanning, sunscreen use, choice of SPF, number of occasions with sunburn, and time spent in the sun at midday), were selected to give a 20 point behavioural score. Similarly, four TTM-based questions (giving up sunbathing, using clothes for sun protection, using sunscreens, and staying in the shade) gave a 16 point "propensity-to-change"-score. Results: At follow-up, increased sun protection reflected in the behavioural score occurred only in Group 2 (p<0.001). For the propensity-to-change-score, increased readiness to increase sun protection occurred in both groups, but the change was significantly higher in Group 2 (p<0.05). Categorisation of the 20 point behavioural score, into three risk levels, revealed a significantly higher shift of subjects moving to a lower risk level in Group 2 compared to Group 1 (p<0.05). Conclusions: In conclusion, twinning of a summarised Likert scale behavioural score with a TTM-based propensity-to-change-score seems promising for the creation of a questionnaire-based, comprehensive scoring instrument for sun exposure and protection.

Background/objective: The high skin cancer incidence in western society, and its known association with sun exposure habits, makes the area an important target for prevention. We investigated, in a primary healthcare setting, differentiated levels of prevention efforts directed at the propensity of the patient to change his/her sun habits, sun protection behaviour, and attitudes, after information intervention. Additionally, the impact of the performance of a phototest to determine individual sun sensitivity was evaluated. Methods: 308 patients visiting a primary healthcare centre in southern Sweden completed a questionnaire concerning sun habits, sun protection behaviour, and attitudes, and were randomized into one of three groups, representing increasing levels of prevention effort in terms of resources. Feedback on their questionnaire and general preventive sun protection advice was given, in the first group by means of a letter, and in the second and third groups by a doctor's consultation. Group 3 also underwent a phototest, with a self-reading assessment and a written follow-up of the phototest result. Change of sun habits, behaviour, and attitudes, based on the Transtheoretical Model of Behaviour Change and on Likert scale scorings, was evaluated after 6 months, by a repeated questionnaire. Results: Prevention mediated by a doctor's consultation had a clearly better impact on the subjects. The addition of a phototest did not further reinforce this effect in the group as a whole, but it did for a subgroup of individuals with high ultraviolet (UV) sensitivity, as determined by the phototest itself, suggesting that this might actually be a tool to improve outcome in this high-risk group. Conclusion: A personal doctor's consultation is a valuable tool in the effective delivery of preventive information in the general practice setting. In individuals with high UV-sensitivity and thus high risk for skin cancer the performance of a photo-test reinforces a positive outcome in habits, behaviour and attitudes.

In the investigation and management of skin disease, various testing protocols are of importance. The extent to which clinical judgments and decisions on therapy are supported by the performance of such testing can be affected negatively by the lack of time and resources for the performance of tests. In the present study, the possibility of utilizing self-reporting by subjects is investigated. Determination of irritation threshold for sodium lauryl sulphate (SLS) and minimal erythema dose for ultraviolet B were chosen as suitable self-reading protocols. Test reading by 26 subjects instructed in "present" or "absent" reporting of test reactions were compared to trained observer reading. Absolute agreement was found in 76.9 percent of the SLS reactions and in 85 percent of the UVB reactions. Weighted Kappa for the agreement between observations showed values of 0.76 for the SLS reactions and 0.83 for UVB reactions. We conclude that use of the protocols here studied, and other test protocols modified to accommodate a binomial assessment outcome ("+" or "-"), could well lead to an increase in the performance of skin testing. This could be a qualitative advantage for diagnosis and management of skin diseases. Additionally, population studies and even prevention initiatives could be facilitated. © 2010 Dermatology Online Journal.

Background: In both clinical and experimental phototesting, naked eye assessment of erythema has been the main assessment parameter. As with all subjective assessment, variability in recorded results due to variable circumstances around the performance and reading of tests influences reliability and utility of data whether they be interpreted for an individual patient or for a group of research subjects.

Methods: In the present study, variability in the reporting of diameter of ultraviolet B (UVB) erythema has been studied. The erythematous reactions were assessed by the naked eye and with the help of a millimetre-graded ruler by a group of dermatologists and dermatological trainees. Reaction size, objectively quantified by means of laser Doppler perfusion imaging (LDPI) using thresholding of the reaction perfusion, and known size of UVB provocation were used as yardsticks in order to quantify this variability.

Results: Agreement between observers, against known size, was excellent for reactions with a sharp border, but for reactions with a diffuse or indistinct border there was a substantial inter-observer variability. This was also true for the comparison between naked-eye reading and LDPI assessment of the reaction size.

Conclusion: It is concluded that if naked-eye readings are to be the outcome measurement, then provocations/protocols producing distinct borders are an advantage. If borders between provoked and unprovoked skin can be expected to be diffuse, i.e. part of a continuum of response, the use of objective, bioengineering techniques such as LDPI is required. Quantitative methods are also the basis for more detailed presentation and interpretation of test results including information on dose response above the minimal erythema dose.

Objective. To investigate, in primary health care, differentiated levels of prevention directed at skin cancer, and how the propensity of the patients to change sun habits/sun protection behaviour and attitudes towards sunbathing were affected, three years after intervention. Additionally, the impact of the performance of a phototest as a complementary tool for prevention was evaluated. Design. Randomized controlled study. Setting and subjects. During three weeks in February, all patients andgt;= 18 years of age registering at a primary health care centre in southern Sweden were asked to fill in a questionnaire mapping sun exposure habits, attitudes towards sunbathing, and readiness to increase sun protection according to the Transtheoretical Model of Behaviour Change (TTM) (n = 316). They were randomized into three intervention groups, for which sun protection advice was given, in Group 1 by means of a letter, and in Groups 2 and 3 orally during a personal GP consultation. Group 3 also underwent a phototest to demonstrate individual skin UV sensitivity. Main outcome measures. Change of sun habits/sun protection behaviour and attitudes, measured by five-point Likert scale scores and readiness to increase sun protection according to the TTM, three years after intervention, by a repeated questionnaire. Results. In the letter group, almost no improvement in sun protection occurred. In the two doctors consultation groups, significantly increased sun protection was demonstrated for several items, but the difference compared with the letter group was significant only for sunscreen use. The performance of a phototest did not appear to reinforce the impact of intervention. Conclusion. Sun protection advice, mediated personally by the GP during a doctors consultation, can lead to improvement in sun protection over a prolonged time period.

Aim: The aim of the present study was to investigate possible associations between UV exposure and other health risk behaviours in different social environments and in regard to previous history of skin cancer. Patients and Methods: In two closely-located, equally-sized cities in Sweden, representing different social environments (blue collar and white collar), patients aged 55-69 years, diagnosed with skin cancer (study group, n=489) or seborrhoeic keratosis (control group, n=664), were identified through a regional Health Care Register, and were given a questionnaire mapping for sun habits, tobacco smoking, alcohol use, and physical activity. Results: A previous history of skin cancer was associated with reduced UV exposure (pandlt;0.01) and increased UV protection (pandlt;0.00.1), higher alcohol consumption (pandlt;0.05), and higher level of physical activity (pandlt;0.05). Smoking was more common among subjects frequently sunbathing and rarely using sunscreen, but frequent sunbathing was positively associated with physical activity (pandlt;0.05). Daily smoking and risky drinking habits were more common in the blue collar social environment, while no differences were seen for sun habits in this respect. Conclusion: A previous history of skin cancer appears to promote increased UV protection. In contrast to alcohol/smoking habits, no association between social environment and sun habits was found.

Background

Persons with Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) are seriously affected in their everyday life. The effect across different cultural settings of IBS on their quality of life has been little studied. The aim was to compare health-related quality of life (HRQOL) of individuals suffering from IBS in two different cultural settings; Crete, Greece and Linköping, Sweden.

Methods

This study is a sex and age-matched case-control study, with n = 30 Cretan IBS cases and n = 90 Swedish IBS cases and a Swedish control group (n = 300) randomly selected from the general population. Health-related quality of life, measured by SF-36 and demographics, life style indicators and co-morbidity, was measured.

Results

Cretan IBS cases reported lower HRQOL on most dimensions of SF-36 in comparison to the Swedish IBS cases. Significant differences were found for the dimensions mental health (p < 0.0001) and general health (p = 0.05) even after adjustments for educational level and co-morbidity. Women from Crete with IBS scored especially low on the dimensions general health (p = 0.009) and mental health (p < 0.0001) in comparison with Swedish women with IBS. The IBS cases, from both sites, reported significantly lower scores on all HRQOL dimensions in comparison with the Swedish control group.

Conclusion

The results from this study tentatively support that the claim that similar individuals having the same disease, e.g. IBS, but living in different cultural environments could perceive their disease differently and that the disease might affect their everyday life and quality of life in a different way. The Cretan population, and especially women, are more seriously affected mentally by their disease than Swedish IBS cases. Coping with IBS in everyday life might be more problematic in the Cretan environment than in the Swedish setting.