Som vi visat har utvecklingen av metoder och strukturer för öppna prioriteringar i Sverige kommit långt. Många frågor återstår likväl. Under vårt arbete med denna bok har vi identifierat ett antal förbättringsområden och utmaningar som vi avslutningsvis vill lyfta fram. Det rör sig om vilka som ska delta i prioriteringarna, tydliggörande av värdegrunden, behov av bättre kunskap, baserad på både vetenskaplig metod och erfarenhet, och fortsatt utveckling av prioriteringsprocesser på olika nivåer och i olika sammanhang. Även om vi i Sverige skulle nå en god enighet kring principer och kriterier för prioriteringar så kommer vi alltid finna många olika sätt att praktiskt lösa specifika prioriteringsproblem.

We analyze a frequent but undertheorized form of structural injustice, one that arises due to the difficulty of reaching numerically equitable representation of underrepresented subgroups within a larger group. This form of structural injustice is significant because it could occur even if it were possible to completely eliminate bias and overt discrimination from hiring and recruitment practices. The conceptual toolkit we develop can be used to analyze such situations and propose remedies. Specifically, based on a simple mathematical model, we offer a new argument in favour of quotas, explore implications for policy-making, and consider the wider philosophical significance of the problem. We show that in order to reach more equitable representations, quota-based recruitment may often be practically unavoidable. Assuming that members of groups in statistical minority are more likely to quit due to their marginalization, their proportions can stabilize at a low level, preventing a shift towards more equal representation and conserving the minority status of the subgroup. We show that this argument has important implications for addressing, preventing, and remediating the structural injustice of unfair representation.

In a recent extended essay, philosopher Daniel Hausman goes a long way towards dismissing severity as a morally relevant attribute in the context of priority setting in healthcare. In this response, we argue that although Hausman certainly points to real problems with how severity is often interpreted and operationalised within the priority setting context, the conclusion that severity does not contain plausible ethical content is too hasty. Rather than abandonment, our proposal is to take severity seriously by carefully mapping the possibly multiple underlying accounts to well-established ethical theories, in a way that is both morally defensible and aligned with the term’s colloquial uses.

In a recent extended essay, philosopher Daniel Hausman goes a long way towards dismissing severity as a morally relevant attribute in the context of priority setting in healthcare. In this response, we argue that although Hausman certainly points to real problems with how severity is often interpreted and operationalised within the priority setting context, the conclusion that severity does not contain plausible ethical content is too hasty. Rather than abandonment, our proposal is to take severity seriously by carefully mapping the possibly multiple underlying accounts to well-established ethical theories, in a way that is both morally defensible and aligned with the term’s colloquial uses.

Priority setting in health care is ubiquitous and health authorities are increasingly recognising the need for priority setting guidelines to ensure efficient, fair, and equitable resource allocation. While cost-effectiveness concerns seem to dominate many policies, the tension between utilitarian and deontological concerns is salient to many, and various severity criteria appear to fill this gap. Severity, then, must be subjected to rigorous ethical and philosophical analysis. Here we first give a brief history of the path to todays severity criteria in Norway and Sweden. The Scandinavian perspective on severity might be conducive to the international discussion, given its long-standing use as a priority setting criterion, despite having reached rather different conclusions so far. We then argue that severity can be viewed as a multidimensional concept, drawing on accounts of need, urgency, fairness, duty to save lives, and human dignity. Such concerns will often be relative to local mores, and the weighting placed on the various dimensions cannot be expected to be fixed. Thirdly, we present what we think are the most pertinent questions to answer about severity in order to facilitate decision making in the coming years of increased scarcity, and to further the understanding of underlying assumptions and values that go into these decisions. We conclude that severity is poorly understood, and that the topic needs substantial further inquiry; thus we hope this article may set a challenging and important research agenda.

As is well known, the late Husserl warned against the dangers of reifying and objectifying the mathematical models that operate at the heart of our physical theories. Although Husserl’s worries were mainly directed at Galilean physics, the first aim of our paper is to show that many of his critical arguments are no less relevant today. By addressing the formalism and current interpretations of quantum theory, we illustrate how topics surrounding the mathematization of nature come to the fore naturally. Our second aim is to consider the program of reconstructing quantum theory, a program that currently enjoys popularity in the field of quantum foundations. We will conclude by arguing that, seen from this vantage point, certain insights delivered by phenomenology and quantum theory regarding perspectivity are remarkably concordant. Our overall hope with this paper is to show that there is much room for mutual learning between phenomenology and modern physics.

Som man frågar får man svar. Frågvisare handlar om den mänskliga nyfikenheten, hur den uppkommit, vad som skiljer oss från djuren. Frågor ramar in våra liv. Det är med frågor vi orienterar oss i världen. De utgör vårt viktigaste verktyg, förmågan som fört mänskligheten framåt. Men bättre frågor kommer också att hjälpa oss att skaffa en bättre bild av världen. Den här boken ger förslag på hur.

Paediatric chronic kidney disease (CKD) requires complex care and radically transforms the everyday life of the child’s family. This thesis examines parents’ lived experience of dealing with a child’s CKD; how social and economic circumstances impact on families’ opportunities to manage the care; and how parents view and practise their parenthood. The thesis takes inspiration from the phenomenology of practice, material culture studies and parenting culture studies. The research is based on ethnographic fieldwork in a paediatric hospital in Portugal and in the participating families’ home environments. Thematic analysis was used to analyse the empirical material. 

The first study addresses the ethnographic methods used in the study and the challenges involved in examining parents’ lived experiences of managing caregiving. It demonstrates that the challenges involved in carrying out fieldwork among families in crisis can function as openings for discovering the multifaceted and complicated realities the families encounter. The second study shows that parents use all the available financial and human resources to manage the technically demanding care and create normality. It also shows that, while parents experience becoming confined and close relationships as strained, the mundane practices and social relations of care bring hope and meaning to the family. The third study demonstrates that good parenthood for the participants means focusing on the child’s survival and well-being, and requires constant vigilance and readjustments, what I term “readiness parenting”. 

This research contributes to creating knowledge about the complexity of caring for a chronically ill child, the relational and material aspects of caregiving and how norms about responsible parenthood are negotiated. It also demonstrates the need for qualitative research methods to understand parents’ lived experiences and create knowledge about their meaning- making, needs and competencies. 

This chapter addresses the challenges involved in understanding parents’ concrete experiences of managing a child with a chronic kidney disease (CKD). This disease causes suffering for the child, disrupts daily routines and transforms the everyday life of the family. On the basis of ethno-graphic methodology, participant observations and interviews with primary caregivers were conducted at a major paediatric hospital in Portugal. However, the stressful environment at the hospital led the researcher to seek access to the parents’ home environment. The multisited approach of this investigation revealed a typical trajectory involving back and forth visits to the hospital and in addition, parents had to manage a variety of practices depending on the setting. Attending to the parents’ emotions rather than avoiding them was vital in understanding how their lives became stressed and in how they grew as individuals. The challenges involved in carrying out fieldwork among families in crisis can work as openings for discovering the multifaceted realities the families encounter.  

Children of prisoners are often negatively affected by their parents’ incarceration, which raises issues of justice. A common view is that the many negative effects associated with parental imprisonment are unjust, simply because children of prisoners are impermissibly harmed or unjustly punished by their parents’ incarceration. We argue that proposals of this kind have problems with accounting for cases where it is intuitive that prison might create social injustices for children of prisoners. Therefore, we suggest that in addition to the question of whether children of prisoners are impermissibly harmed, we should ask whether the inequalities that these children endure because of their parent’s incarceration are objectionable from a social justice perspective. To answer this latter question, we examine the negative effects associated with parental imprisonment from the perspective of luck egalitarianism. We develop a luck egalitarian account that incorporates insights from the philosophy of childhood. On our account, children of prisoners might endure two different types of objectionable inequalities, since they are often deprived of resources that are important for ensuring fair equality of opportunity in adulthood, but also because they are likely to suffer inequalities in terms of childhood welfare. After defending this account, we explore its implications for policy.

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In relation to three cases of recent claims for rectificatory justice after colonialism; the Caribbean nations’ claims for rectification after slavery and the slave trade, claims of former Mau Mau adherents for rectification for atrocities during the British colonial war in the 1950s and the restitution of African art in French museums, Collste defines the concept of rectificatory justice and discusses pertinent ethical questions raised by the claims for historical justice. Among them are the moral reasons for rectification, the implications of past injustices for present claims for justice, and whether intentions to harm in the past is a necessary requirement for a present duty to rectify. Finally, Collste suggests how historical justice can be taught in school and its importance for historical consciousness.

Metafysiken ställer frågor om den yttersta verkligheten, vad den består av och hur den ter sig för oss. Tidsfilosofi ställer samma typ av frågor men då specifikt om tid. Det är frågor som handlar om tidens rörelse, om det finns något speciellt med det vi upplever som ett nu och i så fall hur nuet för-håller sig till dåtid och framtid. En återkommande fråga är huruvida vår upplevelse av tid bekräftar eller vederlägger metafysiska teorier om eller modeller av tid. Den här uppsatsen handlar om huruvida vi kan sägas uppleva tidens rörelse. Mer precist undersöker den ett centralt argument för tidens rörelse och ett argument mot tidens rörelse. Slutligen ställs bägge argumenten mot empiriska undersökningar av vår upplevelse av tid.

The ambition with this essay is to create a general idea of how modern research estimates the hierarchic division of the Christian angels, as Dante accounts for in The Divine Comedy, as well as the hierarchy it is based on. In addition to that, the connection between the hierarchy and the cosmological functions of the angels, and the subsequent task to uphold the world, is analyzed. An important factor for the comprehension of Dante’s angelology is its connection to the philosophy and Christian faith of the late medieval period; how it was affected by – and at the same time affected – its context, which eventually contributed to the generation of the modern Western world view. In fact, the theological discourse that expands from the first centuries of Christianity reaches a summit in Dante’s angelic hierarchy, where faith and philosophy finally consolidate. Thus, Christian angelic doctrine, with starting point in the Bible, meets in Dante the neo-platonic doctrine of emanation and Aristotle’s principle of causality, which together count for the foundation of the Western late medieval view of reality. The aim of this essay is consequently to investigate Dante’s angelic hierarchy and the cosmological functions of the angels, by investigating the assimilation of faith and philosophy that constitutes their metaphysical base.

The dissertation "The Ethics of Bilateral Labor Agreement for Global Nurses - Perspectives from the Philippines" is written in the research area of ​​applied ethics and examines ethical aspects of labor migration in the specific area of ​​healthcare, with the Philippines as an example. The central questions for the dissertation are the ethical issues of nurse migration in the Philippine context. These ethical concerns give rise to how the responsibility for such migration governance should be understood and designed. More specifically, the issue of responsibility is discussed in relation to the Philippine Government, and its counterpart foreign governments, for their use of the bilateral labor agreement (BLA) as a policy measure to manage the migration of nurses.

The thesis draws on from empirical studies of Filipino nurses’ massive emigration and how this mobility affects individuals and the Philippine society. Historical description of the emergence of healthcare professionals as export products in the Philippines is also consulted. The country’s colonial history is described, and its relevance to today’s migration pattern is analyzed. 

Based upon the empirical data on past and present Filipino health worker emigration, identified ethical implications are examined. Among these are the rights of individuals and the division of responsibilities between origin and destination countries in order to address the ethical implications the BLAs give rise to. In the theoretical part of the work, key elements from John Rawls’ theories of justice (1971, 1993, 2001) are used to identify conditions of a crafting public policy that, ideally, should be met in agreement with the members of a liberal society. Thereafter, the ideal model of a BLA is constructed based on the main principles of justice. The model is used to examine the extent to which, if at all, the existing BLAs between the Philippines and countries like Japan and Germany can be considered as ethically defensible instruments for managing the emigration of nurses. Finally, a discussion on how such agreements should be designed to be ethically defensible is offered.

Texten beskriver hur konstnärer och andra kulturskapare i 1890-talets Paris engagerade sig i den anarkistiska rörelsen. Med pennan och penseln som främsta vapen spreds propaganda som ofta uppmanade till och förhärligade radikala våldsdåd. Fokus i texten ligger på den omfattande anarkistprocessen 1894, då en stor grupp intellektuella anarkister stod inför rätta, anklagade för deltagande i en internationell anarkistisk konspiration.

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During the First World War, the legitimacy of established polities was challenged throughout Europe. Not only did the war affect the great powers; smaller nations that were not directly involved also experienced a resurgence of constitutional disputes. While these controversies have been analyzed as conceptual struggles, this article – inspired by Reinhart Koselleck’s theory of historical times – suggests that they can also be understood as ideological struggles over temporalities. The article examines the Swedish parliamentary debates on further democratization after the introduction of universal suffrage. In this context, there were ideological struggles over how the historical development should be interpreted and differing visions of how the future should be shaped, resulting in varying understandings of what was required of the present. In the conclusion, the article addresses the Koselleckian categorization of temporal experience and argues that there is a need for another category, one that lies beyond calculable prognoses and predictions: the category of the utopian.

This article examines how the discourse of the new generation of environmental youth movements highlights time and temporality in order to explain the possibilities of change that the movements offer. This is done by analyzing three influential and transnational youth climate movements-Earth Uprising, Extinction Rebellion, and Fridays For Future-in relation to three influential diagnoses of the current political condition: postpolitics, populism, and postapocalypse. The article argues that the movements should be understood as mobilizing through negative utopian energies. Using theoretical inspiration from Ernst Bloch, the article states that the discourse should be read as containing acts of hope and utopian impulses that reach forward toward a new beginning of a future possible. The article shows how the movements challenge the diagnoses of populism and postpolitics by their constant critique of capitalism, by reinstalling the people as heterogenous political subjects, and by representing a new temporality. Moreover, the article shows how the mainstream climate discourse contains two temporal narratives that run parallel to each other: one that can be thought of as a vernacular eschatology and one that is seemingly postapocalyptic. However, the article argues that both narratives provide visions of a better future to come, and by using the notion of anticipation, the article states that even the postapocalyptic narrative can be mobilizing. Thus, the environmental youth movements offer a new kind of discourse, one that is non-postpolitical, nonpopulist, and non-postapocalyptic.

For a long time, the reception of German historian and theorist Reinhart Kosellecks work focused on disciplinary and methodological aspects of conceptual history (Begriffsgeschichte). However, in recent years, there has been an increased interest in Kosellecks more theoretical discussions on historical time and temporality, highlighting his oeuvre of a theory of the conditions for possible histories (Historik). Taking its cue from the current trend, this article revisits the Koselleckian category of horizon of expectation (Erwartungshorizont) in light of Ernst Blochs work on the principle of hope (Das Prinzip Hoffnung) and the concept of utopia as the forward dreaming of the Not-Yet (Noch-Nicht). By exploring and developing the utopian as a formal category - used as a supplement to Kosellecks conceptualization of the relationship between the space of experience and the horizon of expectation - the article argues that Kosellecks theory can be reframed into one that can fully account for the utopian imaginaries of political thinking.

Background Genetic testing is moving from targeted investigations of monogenetic diseases to broader testing that may provide more information. For example, recent health economic studies of genetic testing for an increased risk of breast cancer suggest that it is associated with higher cost-effectiveness to screen for pathogenic variants in a seven gene panel rather than the usual two gene test for variants inBRCA1andBRCA2. However, irrespective of the extent to which the screening of the panel is cost-effective, there may be ethical reasons to not screen for pathogenic variants in a panel, or to revise the way in which testing and disclosing of results are carried out. Main text In this paper we discuss the ethical aspects of genetic testing for an increased risk of breast cancer with a special focus on the ethical differences between screening for pathogenic variants inBRCA1/2and a seven gene panel. The paper identifies that the panel increases the number of secondary findings as well as the number of variants of uncertain significance as two specific issues that call for ethical reflection. Conclusions We conclude that while the problem of handling secondary findings should not be overstated with regard to the panel, the fact that the panel also generate more variants of uncertain significance, give rise to a more complex set of problems that relate to the value of health as well as the value of autonomy. Therefore, it is insufficient to claim that the seven gene panel is preferable by only referring to the higher cost effectiveness of the panel.

Intensive research is carried out by several pharmaceutical companies in order to develop a disease modifying drug for Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The development of drug candidates which reduce Aß and tau in the brain seems particularly promising. These drugs and the characteristics of AD raise a number of ethical challenges. In this report we analyze these challenges in relation to priority setting and the diagnostic measures associated with these drugs. The former analysis draws primarily on the Swedish ethical platform for health care priority setting, whereas the latter draws on the guidelines for screening developed by the National Board of Health and Welfare.

Although the effect of the new drugs is likely to have an impact on relatives of people with AD, it is our interpretation that the Swedish ethical platform leaves no room for such considerations.

In relation to the effect of the drugs there is also reason to pay special attention to the extent to which the surrogate measures used in the clinical studies are of clinical relevance.

When it comes to aggregating benefits across individuals, it is our interpretation that the platform does not allow aggregation of patient benefits in such a way. This means that the fact that people with AD constitute a large group of patients does not in itself constitute a reason for giving this group a higher priority. The ethical platform rather seems to prescribe that the effect must be assessed with regard to how it accrues to each individual. In a scenario where the budgetary impact becomes so great that decision makers need to prioritize within the group, it seems that there are no relevant criteria for these priorities.

AD is a condition with a very high degree of severity. However, as the new drugs are targeting the preclinical or Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) phase, the severity of the condition should be decreased with respect to the likelihood of actually developing AD. The severity of the condition thus becomes different for drugs that aim at the preclinical phase, those that aim at the MCI phase and those that aim at clinical stages of AD.

Solidarity considerations in the platform prescribes that people with AD may be less able than other patient groups to communicate their needs, they should therefore be given special consideration. However, this does not mean a higher priority but to stress that people with AD have the same right to health care as other groups with similar needs.

Population screening for AD is associated with several problems. There are general problems with screening from, for example, an autonomy point of view. But there are also problems related to the fact that current methods of risk stratification are so unreliable, which in turn results in false negatives (with risk of undertreatment) and false positives (with risk of overtreatment).

Screening in the MCI phase has (in addition to the problems that come with population screening) problems with inequality and arbitrariness. When the clinical phase begins, there is no longer any point with screening: the later the identification, the less potential treatment benefits compared to standard diagnostics.

It is our overall assessment that the new drugs must generate large health benefits for people at risk of developing AD in order to be eligible for general funding and to justify the ethical costs that come with current diagnostic methods.

Intensive research is carried out to develop a disease-modifying drug for Alzheimers disease (AD). The development of drug candidates that reduce Ass or tau in the brain seems particularly promising. However, these drugs target people at risk for AD, who must be identified before they have any, or only moderate, symptoms associated with the disease. There are different strategies that may be used to identify these individuals (eg, population screening, cascade screening, etc). Each of these strategies raises different ethical challenges. In this paper, we analyse these challenges in relation to the risk stratification for AD necessary for using these drugs. We conclude that the new drugs must generate large health benefits for people at risk of developing AD to justify the ethical costs associated with current risk stratification methods, benefits much larger than current drug candidates have. This conclusion raises a new set of ethical questions that should be further discussed.

Granulocyte transfusions have been administered to patients with life-threatening infections for more than five decades. However, to what extent this should be the case is far from established. On the one hand, the clinical effects of these transfusions are difficult to prove in clinical studies, and the donors of granulocytes may be exposed to certain risks. On the other hand, clinical experience seems to support the idea that granulocyte transfusions do play an important role for severely ill patients, and the donors are primarily motivated by altruistic reasons. In this paper, we first discuss the ethical issues that arise from the fact that there is a conflict between clinical experience and the results from the attempts to perform randomized control trials, and second, the risk/benefit assessment that has to be made between two different parties, namely the recipient and the donor of granulocyte transfusions.

How to balance the maximization of health and concerns for the worse off remains a challenge for health care decision makers when setting priorities. In regulatory guidelines these concerns are typically specified in terms of priority setting according to needs and priority setting according to cost-effectiveness. Still, it is often unclear when and why needs and cost-effectiveness diverge or overlap as guiding priority setting principles in practice. We conduct a comparative analysis of need and cost-effectiveness in the context of health care priority setting. Based on theories of distributive justice we specify three normative interpretations of need and explicate how these relate to the normative basis for cost-effectiveness analysis. Using priority-setting dilemmas we then move on to explicate when and why need and cost-effectiveness diverge as priority-setting principles. We find that: (i) although principles of need and cost-effectiveness may recommend the same allocation of resources the underlying reason for an allocation is different; (ii) while they both may give weight to patients who are worse off they do so in different ways and to different degree; and (iii) whereas cost-effectiveness clearly implies the aggregation of benefits across individuals principles of needs give no guidance with regard to if, and if so, how needs should be aggregated. Priority setting according to needs or cost-effectiveness does not necessarily recommend different allocations of resources. Thus, the normative conflict between them, often highlighted in practice, seems exaggerated. For health policy this is important knowledge because unclear conceptions may obstruct an informed public discussion. Moreover, if decision-makers are to properly account for both principles they need to recognize the inconsistencies as well as similarities between the two.

This paper aims to analyze the representation of children and childhood in art during the European colonization and imperialization through history from a postcolonial feminist perspective historiographical method. The aim is to reflect on how colonialism has affected the visual representation of children and generated the concepts of race, class, and gender. As a background, the paper will first present the historical concept of the child and the emergence of childhood from the Middle ages to the end of the 18^th century. This will then be intertwined with the two main parts of the study, which will analyze childhood from the late 18^th until the beginning of the 20^th century. The first main part analyzes pictures of children in relation to colonialism in the Neoclassical-, Romantic- and Realistic artforms, while the second main part will center around Orientalist art. Throughout the paper, the pictures will be analyzed with a critical perspective of history and societal norms from an intersectional viewpoint.

Uppsatsen är historiografisk och undersöker hur konststilen Den nya sakligheten beskrivits och värderats i Sverige vid skilda tidpunkter från dess uppkomst 1919 och framåt. Här beskrivs också den svenska stilen jämfört med dess internationella motsvarigheter. Vidare analysas hur såväl kontextuella som andra orsaker påverkat de skiftande omdömen som lämnats. Resonemang förs även om stilens placering i svensk konstkanon samt dess förhållande till modernismen i stort. Till grund för undersökningen ligger ett stort antal tidningsrecensioner från utställningar samt studier av olika tiders konsthistorieverk. Även orsaker till varför stilen under vissa tider mer eller mindre ignorerats analyseras.

In recent years, the issue of accepting a higher cost per health improvement for orphan drugs has been the subject of discussion in health care policy agencies and the academic literature. This article aims to provide an analysis of broadly egalitarian arguments for and against accepting higher costs per health improvement. More specifically, we aim to investigate which arguments one should agree upon putting aside and where further explorations are needed. We identify three kinds of arguments in the literature: considerations of substantial equality, formal equality, and opportunity cost. We argue that considerations of substantial equality do not support higher costs per health improvement orphan drugs, even if such considerations are considered valid. On the contrary, arguments of formal equality may support accepting a higher cost per health improvement for orphan drugs. However, in order to do so, a number of both normative and empirical issues must be resolved; these issues are identified in the article. For instance, it must be settled to what extent the opportunity cost in terms of foregone health for other patients is acceptable in order to uphold formal equality. We conclude that certain arguments can be set aside, and future focus should be put on the unresolved normative and empirical issues related to formal equality and opportunity cost.

This Innovative Practice Full Paper presents an approach to integrate three critical elements in Computer Science education.The call to imbue computer science graduates with strategic skills needed to address our pressing global sustainability challenges is extremely important, and a great challenge to degree programmes in computer science and software engineering. Doing this successfully requires great care, and possibly several iterations across an entire curriculum. In this regard, learning for sustainability faces similar challenges as understanding scientific results and ethics. Improving skills in searching for, reading, and producing academic texts are often neglected, as are skills in understanding ethics; what norms and values that guide our choices of methods for solving problems. To handle the fact that these subjects (academic writing, ethics and sustainability) are treated separately, and thereby lowering student engagement with the topics, we have successfully integrated them into one coherent subject of Professionalism in Computer Science. By integrating the three subjects, we do three things: a) describe a multi-faceted but integrated engineering role; b) integrate the three aspects of the role we focus on in education and steer away from the view that these are add-ons; and c) increase the motivation of students to take on these aspects of the engineering role.Our approach uses a flipped-classroom style with students playing educational games, participating in discussion seminars and conducting critical analyses of other students’ choices in IT system design. Much emphasis is on the students academic writing abilities, including critical information search and a student peer-review procedure. Also, we do this using an integrated assessment format where teachers from different disciplinary backgrounds jointly assess material from students, which stimulates discussions among ourselves about what and how to assess, and provides a practical way to integrate assessments. We present results from attitude surveys, course evaluations and the contents of the students’ analyses in their final essays. In conclusion, our approach demonstrates a clear shift in how students perceive sustainability, showing that it is possible to achieve changes in attitude towards the subjects as such and their importance for computer scientists.