RÅPUNK documents the Swedish raw punk scene between 1981 and 1989. Inspired by bands like DISCHARGE, CRASS and DEAD KENNEDYS, the second wave of Swedish punk bands launched a furious, unique musical and visual onslaught that still affects and influences punk fans worldwide.The book captures the spirit of this era by featuring rare and never before seen photos of bands like ANTI-CIMEX, ASOCIAL, AVSKUM, DISARM, HUVUDTVÄTT/HEADCLEANERS, MISSBRUKARNA, MOB 47, MODERAT LIKVIDATION, RAPED TEENAGERS, RÖVSVETT,SKITSLICKERS, SVART PARAD, SVART SNÖ, SWANKERS PMS, TOTALITÄR and many, many more. It also documents the people — who by going to gigs, organising demonstrations, producing fanzines and releasing tapes and records — all represented different creative and ideological but equally important parts of the scene. RÅPUNK also features a great number of fanzines, posters, record and cassette artwork — all representing and encapsulating the scene’s raw, expressive and important Do It Yourself design aspect. Written by DAVID ANDERSSON — a member of the scene as singer of the band IDENTITY and zine maker of BUBBEL-BAD. Foreword by legendary ex-NAPALM DEATH singer LEE DORRIAN, who toured Sweden at the time, and was one of the few promoters to bring Swedish raw punk bandsto the UK. The book fills a previously blank area on the map as this is the first time the Swedish raw punk scene of the 1980s gets a visual documentation in book form.

In this article, we analyse how gendered subject positions during the Middle Ages are talked about in the history education classroom in primary school. Discourses about gender norms in the past were followed by discourses about how to interpret these differences and injustices, where we see that: i) the interpretations are constructed as being linked to biology, ii) teacher and pupils construct a present ‘us’ who understand better than a past ‘they’, an us who have greater freedom of action to choose for ourselves how to live our lives, and where iii) this is explained by the view that mediaeval people did not understand very well. It is between these discourses that the negotiation of how to interpret gender norms and gendered positions takes place. Negotiations result in a discourse that stresses today’s society as one of equality and equity. These discourses also enable various counter-discourses in which pupils challenged the constructions of women in the past offered by the teacher and textbook in the classroom.

In June 2022, the Swedish curriculum was revised and the school's responsibility to communicate knowledge about sexuality to pupils was emphasized. Although the field of sexuality is not new in the Swedish curriculum, teaching sexuality has gone through a significant development in its content since it first became a part of the Swedish curriculum. Now that society is becoming increasingly more digitalized and informed, new challanges follow, and perhaps it is now more important than ever that young people gain more knowledge in matters of sexuality, relationships, and consent. As an effort to meet these challanges, the National Agency for Education delegates the field of knowledge to teachers in all common subjects, including religious education (RE). With its association in cultural norms and gender identity, RE may be considered partucularly appropriate for discussing and teaching sexuality.

The purpose of this study is to investigate how teachers of religious education percive to what degree they can contribute knowledge about sexuality in their teaching. This study also aims to find out what approaches teachers use in sexuality as a part of their religious education. This survey is a qualitative study, and the materials have been collected through semi-structured interviews with teachers in religious education in south Sweden. The study shows that teaches have positive attitudes towards including sexuality in religious education and that they find teching sexuality important. Nevertheless, it is not exactly clear for the interviewed RE teachers how and what to include regarding sexuality when teaching RE due to many difficulties that may arise. Consequently, teachers in this study describe different individually based strategies to include sexuality in their teaching, depending in personal interest and experise. 

Gender is a broad subject, which many people have differens opinions on, and many teachers find themselves discussing the topic with their pupils within the religious classroom education. The topic of gender is often brought up when discussing the religions: Islam and Christianity. Therefore, this study aims to discuss the view on gender in the Swedish religious education about Christianity and Islam through analyzing previous research material. Thereafter, this essay presents the various possibilities and obstacles found in the material, in addition to answer questions regarding how gender topics are included within religious education. To this end, three studies, as well as an anthology regaring religious didactics, are presented by analyzing the presented obstacles and possibilities that the material discusses. To put this in context, the essay provides a brief background of today's post-secular society's view on Christianity and Islam in relation to their views in gender as well as a representation of the Swedish curriculum concerning the same. The essay concludes by stating how gender ought to be included and made visible within the ordinary religious education to benefit the pupils the most. Therefore, gender should not be tought at a seperate subject, and the importance of teachers begin critical towards the existing teaching materials cannot be overstated. Wit this in mind, teachers should use the existing teaching materials by letting pupils examine their lack of inclusiveness, and to dic¡scuss their flaws. 

This article provides an example of the historical production of medical masculinity via a case study of medical practitioners in early 20th century North America within the nascent specialty of urology. By using the analytical concept of "repertoire", it iis argued that this urological masculinity was produced to advance the position of the emerging specialty and simultaneously differentiate it in the eyes of other medical practitioners, as well as to distinguish urologists from their male patients with venereal disease. 

This article analyses how economic support and social benefits for thalidomide-affected children were negotiated and organized by both public and private actors in 1960s Sweden. Accounts from various archives are used to analyse how two different but coexisting understandings of disability - as a medical and a social problem - both influenced and underpinned not only the rehabilitation of The Swedish programme arranged for the affected children, but also the associated economic support. Contributing to a more nuanced understanding of the formation welfare solutions in the 1960s and to the intersecting research fields of the history of medicine and disability history, this article also advances our knowledge of the concept of normalization and fosters insights into how the Swedish thalidomide scandal contributed to increased economic support for both the thalidomide affected and other groups of disabled children.

On October 2, 1990, the ominous message above marked the end of a radio station with a global reach. For the very last time, Radio Berlin International ’s (RBI) tuning signal—the first eight notes of the GDR national anthem , “Auferstanden aus Ruinen”—sounded on the airwaves. This occurred in the context of the fundamental remapping of the European continent that took place between 1989 and 1991. The city of Berlin was at the heart of these changes, with the wall that separated Germans symbolically and physically torn down on November 9, 1989, making it possible for East and West Berliners to meet for the first time in decades. Although it was a moment of peaceful revolution, the autumn of 1989 was also a turbulent time for the GDR, not least for the country’s governing Communist Party, the Socialist Unity Party (Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands, or SED). Other aspects of East German society, among them the media, also found themselves in between scripts. How were the new realities to be described, depicted, and made sense of in public life? The aim of this chapter is not to once again tell the story of the political 1989 but to approach the peaceful revolution and Europe’s remapping from the perspective of international radio and its audiences. It focuses on the East German broadcaster RBI and its Swedish-language broadcasts, relying on written manuscripts from the German Broadcasting Archive (Deutsche Rundfunkarchiv [DRA]) in Potsdam-Babelsberg. Through the manuscripts  Radio Berlin International (RBI) and Its Swedish Audience in November 1989. This broadcast comes to you from Radio Berlin International— the voice of the disappearing German Democratic Republic. Radio Berlin International, October 2, 1990 140 Remapping Cold War Media of the broadcasts from August through December 1989, we can approach the turbulence of this moment from a new angle, revealing some of the predicaments that RBI hosts encountered when trying to combine the old script of socialist state propaganda with a sensitivity to the unexpected and unprecedented events occurring both in the world and at home. In particular, the program The Letterbox (Briefkasten/Brevlådan), which consisted of letters to the Swedish studio in Berlin, testifies to how, even before the Berlin Wall crumbled, RBI hosts challenged the standard procedures of state-socialist broadcasting and sounded notes of disapproval of the SED government— soft at first, but with an increasingly critical tone. Within just a couple of weeks, a new RBI script was in the making—and from a distance, Swedes were listening and commenting on it. International Broadcasting during the Cold War.  East German RBI was one of the most prominent international radio stations in the former Eastern Bloc. Officially founded on May 20, 1959 (although broadcasts in German, English, and French had already been introduced in 1956), it was situated within the GDR state radio station Rundfunk der DDR (1952–1991). From the fourth floor of the majestic Funkhaus Nalepastraße in East Berlin, the RBI shortwave signal went to powerful transmitters in Nauen, Königs Wusterhausen, and Leipzig, from which it was sent out to the world. In November 1989, RBI broadcast in eleven different languages: German, English, French, Swedish, Danish, Italian, Hindi, Arabic, Swahili, Portuguese, and Spanish. It is difficult to estimate the number of listeners, but according to one source, fifty-four million people around the world were tuning into RBI’s broadcasts by the 1980s. Most often, RBI staff seem to have been either foreign-born members of communist parties now living in Berlin or East German journalists, editors, teachers, or translators. RBI fell under the GDR’s central authority for broadcasting activity, the State Radio Committee (Staatliches Komitee für Rundfunk). As one party official put it in the early 1960s, the committee’s mandate was to use “radio and television [to] aid the construction and victory of socialism . . . by means of ideological and educational broadcasts from the main centers of the republic.” This dissemination was to extend beyond the borders of the GDR: shortwave radio was seen as a powerful tool for reaching audiences in Africa, Asia, and on the other side of the Iron Curtain, and for informing these foreign audiences about East Germany. RBI’s main content was thus news and information about the GDR; however, light entertainment such as East German (and later, even Western) pop music was a common feature of the broadcasts, showing global...

Hur formar vi framtiden och hur lär vi oss av historien? Vilken roll spelar konsten i ett framtida samhälle, hur fungerar framsynthet inom ekonomi och juridik, och hur kan framtidens komplexa forskningsresultat förmedlas och spridas till samhället utanför akademin?

LU Futura var Lunds universitets tvärvetenskapliga tankesmedja för framtidsfrågor 2018-2021. Framtidskompasser är projektets slutpunkt, där deltagarna diskuterar framtidsfrågor inom sina specialområden. Essäerna handlar bland annat om våra växande avfallsberg, om vad beredskapen under kalla kriget kan lära oss i dagens krigsdiskussioner, om hur mänsklig hälsa förhåller sig till planetens välmående – och inte minst om vilka förhoppningar och farhågor dagens studentgeneration hyser inför framtiden.

Vad betyder humaniora? Vilken betydelse har humaniora? Dessa båda snarlika frågor är utgångspunkten för denna idéskrift utgi- ven av tankesmedjan Humtank. Texterna är skrivna av humanistiska forskare från en rad olika ämnen och innehåller resonemang om humanioras värde och vikt. Här finns också idéer om kunskapens kretslopp, språkets performativa kraft, forskningsinfrastruktu- rer, liksom forskningskvalitet, beredskap, forskningens frihet, karriärvägar och kärlek. Sammantaget ger bidragen en god bild av humanioras mångsidighet och tankemässiga potential.

Humtank är en tankesmedja för forskning och utbildning inom humaniora som varit verksam sedan 2014 med syfte att stärka humanioras roll i samhället. Denna skrift är därmed också en jubileumsskrift som firarHumtanks första tio år.

In the 1959 edition of its furniture catalogue, the Swedish design company IKEA praised the new medium of television. Television promised to work wonders for the home and its owners. Just three years after the launch of official broadcasts and one year after its commercial breakthrough spurred by Sweden’s hosting of the 1958 FIFA World Cup, television ownership skyrocketed. Television, however, was not simply a new technological device. It was culturally constructed as a natural element in living room design, amounting to a spatial innovation reconfiguring the micro-geography of the home. The vocabulary of rebirth and renaissance used in the IKEA catalogue also underlined a clear and definite break with homes of the past. In the new Swedish home, television was, in the words of Cecelia Tichi, the ‘electronic hearth’ around which the family gathered. More than an added piece of technology, it created a new domestic environment. This chapter is inspired by a material perspective on communication and explores media devices or furniture—home objects that are designed for, or are in themselves, media technologies. It includes everything from bookcases, radio or television cabinets and telephone tables to desks, computer or iPad stands, and mobile phone chargers. Empirically, the chapter investigates the original Swedish editions of the IKEA catalogue from 1951 over a period of seventy years to its final print edition in 2021. All catalogues have been analysed, examining both the visual and textual content as well as the relationship between image and text in the page layout. The aim is to chart the spaces populated by media in the IKEA home and how they changed over this seventy-year period. What are the media life cycles in the choreography of the IKEA home? In what way did media matter?

This paper argues for an expanded view of research infrastructure. Drawing on our experiences leading the research platform DigitalHistory@Lund, it shows how research capacity can be unlocked “bottom-up”, by providing scholars with comparatively cheap—yet often inaccessible— technological support. By engaging researchers in digitally enabled scholarly practices, the platform yielded a multiplying effect that has seen participants produce highly competitive grant applications and eventually bring home external funding currently worth eight times the platform’s original costs. The platform thus demonstrates the importance of “immaterial” infrastructure in the sense of basic organisational structures that facilitate collaboration and communication.

Integrating media studies with history, Media Tactics in the Long Twentieth Century explores the dynamic relationship between tactics and strategies in recent history.

Drawing on examples from a range of different countries and world regions, and looking at the infrastructures, entanglements, and institutions involved, the volume makes a strong case for media tactics as a new field of scholarly inquiry and for the importance of a historically informed approach. In contrast to strategic communication approaches, this media historical intervention contributes to new knowledge about the practical implementation of strategies. First foregrounding tactics as an object of study, the volume then counters the presentism of contemporary studies by adding a necessary historical perspective. Moreover, the book theoretically disentangles the concept of strategy – from an abstract contemporary buzzword to concrete, hands-on actions – which in turn reveals the complexity of using media strategies and media tactics in reality.

This volume will interest scholars and students working in the field of media and communication in general, and in the subfields of strategic communication, public relations, media history, and propaganda studies.

Integrating media studies with history, Media Tactics in the Long Twentieth Century explores the dynamic relationship between tactics and strategies in recent history.

Drawing on examples from a range of different countries and world regions, and looking at the infrastructures, entanglements, and institutions involved, the volume makes a strong case for media tactics as a new field of scholarly inquiry and for the importance of a historically informed approach. In contrast to strategic communication approaches, this media historical intervention contributes to new knowledge about the practical implementation of strategies. First foregrounding tactics as an object of study, the volume then counters the presentism of contemporary studies by adding a necessary historical perspective. Moreover, the book theoretically disentangles the concept of strategy – from an abstract contemporary buzzword to concrete, hands-on actions – which in turn reveals the complexity of using media strategies and media tactics in reality.

This volume will interest scholars and students working in the field of media and communication in general, and in the subfields of strategic communication, public relations, media history, and propaganda studies.

Integrating media studies with history, Media Tactics in the Long Twentieth Century explores the dynamic relationship between tactics and strategies in recent history.

Drawing on examples from a range of different countries and world regions, and looking at the infrastructures, entanglements, and institutions involved, the volume makes a strong case for media tactics as a new field of scholarly inquiry and for the importance of a historically informed approach. In contrast to strategic communication approaches, this media historical intervention contributes to new knowledge about the practical implementation of strategies. First foregrounding tactics as an object of study, the volume then counters the presentism of contemporary studies by adding a necessary historical perspective. Moreover, the book theoretically disentangles the concept of strategy – from an abstract contemporary buzzword to concrete, hands-on actions – which in turn reveals the complexity of using media strategies and media tactics in reality.

This volume will interest scholars and students working in the field of media and communication in general, and in the subfields of strategic communication, public relations, media history, and propaganda studies.

Employing the Foucauldian term ‘conduct’, this article explores how social resilience and morale became a target of state intervention in Denmark during the Cold War. ‘Psychological defence’ was a Cold War phenomenon designed to bring an imagined future war into a space of control as well as a tool for the authorities’ exercise of power in case another world war became a reality. Advocating a methodological internationalism, the article analyses how the concept of psychological defence travelled from Sweden to Denmark via Norway and NATO, and in a complex process of translation, mixing and hybridization was adapted and appropriated to Danish security policy conditions, preparedness culture, and historical experiences. Ultimately, psychological defence was replaced with a more practical or even cynical approach to public information and media preparedness, even if the objectives remained the same. The article employs source material from Danish, Swedish, and NATO archives and combines Scandinavian Cold War history with media history and the history of knowledge.

This article examines the temporal rhetoric of Extinction Rebellion and Fridays For Future to discuss how the new generation of climate movement organizations offers ideas of an open future that can be acted upon. Research has shown how climate organizations create economic and social disruptions. However, as the article shows, they also create temporal disruptions. Taking theoretical inspiration from critical utopian studies, the article states that the climate activists should be understood as utilizing a disruptive utopian method that aims to disrupt the present and thereby open the future. The method relies on utopias that are relational and open, not static or absolute. Hence, the utopianism employed by these groups is not about closure and perfection, but rather about openness and offering alternatives.

During the last decades of the twentieth century, sustainable development emerged as one of the most important political concepts. However, the concept carried a temporal discrepancy as sustainability concerned continuity and persistence while development focused on change. In this article, the temporalities of the concept are put into focus to understand how the temporal tension influenced the environmental debate in the Swedish parliament, from the late 1980s to the first decade of the new millennium. During this time, the climate emerged as the most important environ-mental issue, and sustainable development became a key concept. The analysis shows how sustainable development should be considered as a composite concept, situated at the intersection of the semantic fields and temporalities of sustainability and development. The two parts have exercised various influence over the whole. For long, development constituted the dominant part while being intimately connected to ideas of progress. Sustainability was primarily given a moderating function, to control the expected progress, and to give shine to goals formulated in terms of eco-nomic growth.

It has been argued that the issue of global warming has become incorporated into a postpolitical condition that has deprived it of a proper political subject. In this article, the depoliticizing process is examined through a historical analysis of Swedish election campaigns, 1988 to 2014, a domain that traditionally features political language and politicizations. The analysis shows how the rhetoric of political parties was characterized by an increasingly universalizing language which made it problematic to name a political subject, and how the enemy of global warming was constructed as an outsider that threatened the current order. The article argues for the need to re-politicize the climate issue by understanding climate crises as social crises; that is, crises that can be properly politicized.

The relationship between time and politics is complex and multilayered, especially in issues such as global warming. This facilitates political playing with and about time; political actors use and frame time in various ways. Drawing upon the work of Reinhart Koselleck, this article examines temporal statements about the environment and the climate in Swedish election campaigns 1988 to 2018 and shows how political rhetoric has been constituted by several competing modalities of time. However, these modalities can become problematic for political thinking about the future. To resolve the climate crisis, we need a politics that acknowledges both historical and political contingency. Engaging with the past, without seeking to extrapolate a unified narrative of historical progress, explores the past from various perspectives and shows how the present is contingent. This could enable a renegotiation of possible futures and a politics for the future that facilitates both understanding and action.

This chapter evaluates Albert Pike’s Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry (1871), which has become one of the most famous and notorious books about Masonry ever published, not least because of its references to Lucifer and Baphomet. While Pike was not by any definition a Satanist or a Luciferian, the ambivalent description of Lucifer in Morals and Dogma has contributed to the image of him as the primary proponent of Luciferian Masonry. Morals and Dogma is divided into thirty-two parts, each dealing with one of the degrees of the Scottish Rite, excluding the 33th. It claims to be the collected wisdom of several philosophical and mystical schools and is based upon the idea that there is a universal form of religion that transcends confessional boundaries. What distinguished Pike’s work from similar books is its very eclectic nature and the author’s frequent references to “pagan” sources.

Among the Scientologists: History, Theology, and Praxis, by Donald A. Westbrook. Oxford University Press, 2019. 332pp. Hb $45.00/£29.99. ISBN-13: 9780190664978.

The article presents the cultural reception of Old Uppsala with a focus in how it is used by contemporary Heathens. Modern Swedish Heathens see the place as spiritually significant, and there have been public blots at the site yearly since 2000. Such rituals are only ambivalently tolerated by the museum and Swedish National Heritage Board. In recent years other groups have started to use the site as well and it has also been used by a variety of smaller shamanistic groups. For Heathens, the place a sacred area, representing the last significant religious site for pre-Christian Norse religion and resistance to Christianization. I argue that Old Uppsala lies at the center of Swedens often complicated relationship with its own history. Its story follows broader cultural trends connected to national identity and when modern Heathens enter the scene, they become a part of this larger debate. The article will look at how the museum presents the Viking age and how their presentations both work with and in opposition to Heathen constructions about Viking age religion.

The article focuses on how a nineteenth-century Swedish nationalistic movement, Göthicism, understood masculinity. The primary example used is Manhemsförbundet (the Manhem Society), an initiatory and educational organization active between 1815–1823. Most of its material was produced by the author Carl Jonas Love Almqvist (1793–1866). The society was at the center of cultural trends and debates in Sweden, notably those about education and how young males can best be of service to the nation. Göthicism and the Manhem Society urged Swedes to look inwards and develop their own national character, arguing that foreign influences made Sweden decadent and weak. Göthicism then sought answers to Sweden’s problems in the pre-Christian past. The Manhem Society attempted to further put Göthicism into practice. The Society developed a structure similar to freemasonry with degrees based on Old Norse mythology, where the candidate was to follow a mythical narrative of the story of Baldur that led from darkness to light. The degrees also included physical training and exercises to shape a manly character. The article argues that the initiations of the Manhem Society were used to create a form of masculinity that was an expression of middle-class ideals about character.

Rune yoga is a spiritual practice based on the idea that the Runic alphabet can be used for spiritual and magical purposes. Based on an interpretation of the Runes where every letter in the alphabet is considered to contain within it a source of mystical powers Rune Yoga uses techniques inspired by Indian yoga to channel these forces. While contemporary Rune Yoga has become a part of Heathen and Alternative Spirituality that attracts people from a variety of Ethnic background the origin of the practice lies within the Ariosophical movement, a racial form of Esotericism that developed in Germany and Austria in the early 20th century. In this article the origin of Rune Yoga within the Ariosphical movement is presented, how it was integrated in ideas about Aryan racial supremacy. The article continues to show how Rune Yoga later migrated to North America and became a practice used within a non-racial milieu and what aspects remained from the original Ariosophical movement. The article argues that while some aspects of Ariosophical thinking remains within Rune Yoga the racial aspects have ceased to be important. Rather than focusing on race modern Rune Yoga focus in self-improvement for the individual and there is a lack of collectivist goals.

This chapter focuses on the British Satanic organization called the Order of the Nine Angles (ONA), one of the most controversial and infamous Satanic groups of the twentieth century. In contrast to most forms of Satanism, ONA texts include references to and advocacy of certain criminal actions to further the group’s end game. Most controversial are the references to human sacrifice, and the question of whether these are to be taken literally has been much debated. The chapter then considers The Black Book of Satan (1984), which is seemingly an early introduction to the ONA’s version of Satanism and what the organization defines as the “Sinister Way.” It looks at three excerpts from the book: “the 21 Satanic points,” “What is Satanism?,” and one of the ONA’s versions of the Black Mass.

This chapter discusses the Process Church of the Final Judgement, an apocalyptic organization founded by Robert DeGrimston and Mary Anne DeGrimston, active primarily in California during the 1960s and 1970s. Focused on the idea of a unity between the gods of the universe (Jehovah, Lucifer, Satan, and Christ), the Process Church developed a highly original form of theology. Becoming manifest in the counter-cultural milieu of the 1960s, it combined Satanism with Christian apocalypticism and ideas derived from Scientology. The chapter then looks at two texts that were distributed internally within the Process Church: “The Gods on War” (1967) and “The Gods and Their People” (1970). These texts express the foundational beliefs of the Process Church, each of the gods being offered their own chapter explaining their nature and the nature of their followers.

This chapter studies The Satanic Temple (TST), which has emerged as one of the most important movements in the history of Satanism. Penned by Lucien Greaves, the national spokesperson for TST in the United States, “Church of Satan vs. Satanic Temple” (2017) presents what Greaves perceives as the essential differences between TST and LaVey’s Church of Satan. Constructing the Church of Satan as a sort of negative “other,” contrasted with TST’s own brand of Satanism, the text serves as an illustrative example of TST’s self-image and presentation vis-à-vis other forms of Satanism. In contrast to the Church of Satan, TST makes limited references to Satan as a symbol for earthly pleasure or egotism. Instead, Satan is presented as a Promethean character, fighting on behalf of the oppressed. While TST does not align itself with any political ideology, its written material, terminology, and symbols frequently reference leftist thought and activism.

The article analyses the legal position of foreign visitors in late medieval Stockholm through the prism of the concept of legal certainty, which requires public, explicit and clear regulations, an institutionalized jurisdiction and equal, just and impartial judgments in court. The article concludes that the authorities in Stockholm strove to create legal certainty for foreign guests and that the regulated relationship between local hosts and visiting guests both provided a control mechanism for the authorities and security for the guests.

In 2020 the first season of Tony McNamara's period drama The Great was released for streaming on Hulu and quickly became popular among international audiences. Based on the events surrounding Catherine the Great's accession to the Russian throne, The Great has been praised as a taboo-breaking dark comedy. The present review will problematise the show's narrative and argue that while The Great indeed had a great potential, it failed to offer any original interpretations of Catherine's personality, accession to power, and her subsequent rule.